B C Smith Understanding Third World Politics Theories of Political Change and Development Second Edition Tai Lieu Chat Luong Understanding Third World Politics Also by B C Smith Field Administration A[.]
Understanding Third World Politics Theories of Political Change and Development Second Edition B C Smith Understanding Third World Politics Also by B C Smith Field Administration: An Aspect of Decentralization Advising Ministers Administering Britain (with J Stanyer) Policy Making in British Government Government Departments: An Organisational Perspective (with D C Pitt) The Computer Revolution in Public Administration (edited with D C Pitt) Decentralization: The Territorial Dimension of the State Bureaucracy and Political Power Progress in Development Administration (editor) British Aid and International Trade (with O Morrissey and E Horesh) Understanding Third World Politics Theories of Political Change and Development Second Edition B C Smith © B C Smith 1996, 2003 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First edition 1996 Second edition 2003 Published by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries ISBN 0–333–98653–9 hardback ISBN 0–333–98654–7 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress 10 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 Printed and bound in China 05 04 03 Contents List of Tables and Figures vi Preface vii The Idea of a ‘Third World’ Theories of Imperialism and Colonialism 22 Modernization and Political Development 44 Neo-colonialism and Dependency 75 The State in the Third World 108 Political Parties and Party Systems 135 Bureaucracy and Political Power 156 Military Intervention in Politics 173 Nationalism and Secession 194 10 Instability and Revolution 219 11 Democratization in the Third World 250 12 Conclusion: Democracy and Development 275 Bibliography 283 Index 310 v List of Tables and Figures Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 4.1 4.2 10.1 10.2 11.1 Growth of real per capita GDP, 1966–2007 Value added as a percentage of GDP Human development, 1999 Third World poverty, 1987–98 Debt servicing, 1990–9 Aid as a percentage of regional GDP, 1990–2000 Inequalities of income and consumption: percentage shares of income and consumption, poorest and richest 20 per cent of population, high and low income countries Women in national politics: selected countries Freedom: regional variations, 2000 15 84 85 236 238 251 Figure 10.1 Needs satisfaction and revolution vi 230 Preface This second edition has been extensively revised in order to sharpen its focus and reflect the current preoccupations in the study of Third World politics, especially the potential for sustainable democracy The chapters on military intervention, bureaucracy and political parties have been revised to enable the implications which these institutions have for processes of democratization to be explored The old chapter on political stability has been divided into two so that proper attention can be paid to theories of democratic transition and consolidation The Conclusion contains a discussion on whether democracy or authoritarianism is preferable for a poor country trying to develop economically and socially The provision of a critical introduction to the attempts of political scientists to understand the politics of less developed countries remains the main purpose of the book While it provides a very wide range of empirical examples from many countries in several continents its central focus is on the issues and controversies that have dominated the social science of Third World politics since the 1950s and in particular on assessing the main theories that have been formulated that attempt to make systematic and rigorous sense of political change The book commences with discussions of two topics that are an essential preparation for what follows: the question of whether there is a ‘Third World’; and the colonial backgrounds of most of today’s less developed countries To identify the types of society with which the book is concerned Chapter deals with the concept of a ‘third’ world Different terminology is used to label the countries and the circumstances in which they find themselves – developing, underdeveloped, poor, less developed – as well as ‘Third World’ These are not synonyms but denote interpretations of history The significance of labels is that they define subjects for analysis So Chapter distinguishes the different meanings that have been attached to the term ‘Third World’, to explain why doubts have been expressed about the legitimacy of such a label This also introduces the main socioeconomic problems facing Third World countries and the major changes that have taken place since the end of the Second World War An understanding of imperialism is necessary not only to know the nature of one of the most formative historical influences on today’s Third World, vii viii Preface but also to comprehend the debates within the social sciences about the legacy of that episode Imperialism, a foundation of contemporary Third World status, has been defined in different ways: obtaining sovereignty; forceful annexation; a stage of capitalism; and colonialism Imperialism is, however, mainly an economic concept, while colonialism is mainly social and political Not all Third World countries were colonies, but all have been affected by imperialism The development of imperialism is briefly outlined, from pre-capitalist imperialism, through the transition from merchant capital to industrial capital, to the acquisition of colonies in the nineteenth century Chapter draws a distinction between imperialism and colonialism, sets out the main elements of the economistic explanations of imperialism, particularly that of the nineteenth century, evaluates these and alternative explanations, and distinguishes between the different forms of European imperialism and their impact on indigenous society It notes the variability of colonial intervention, the pragmatism contrasted with the assimilationism of colonial policy, and the variability of local conditions in terms of fertile land for cash cropping, the structure of communications, the presence of mineral wealth, climatic conditions, indigenous social structures, levels of urbanization, and forms of political organization Consequently different forms of colonial presence were felt: plantations, mining enclaves, the encouragement of peasant cash cropping, European settlement, and combinations of these The next two chapters deal with the main theoretical perspectives on the overall quality of political change in the Third World, which try to explain the situation in which such societies find themselves in terms of ‘modernization’, ‘development’, ‘neo-colonialism’ and ‘dependency’ Chapter locates the origins of modernization theory in evolutionary social theory and its key concepts of continuity, progress, increased complexity and specialization The main dimensions of modernization theory are discussed in a neo-evolutionary perspective; the interrelationship between economic and social values which it embodies; the concept of differentiation derived from Durkheim and Parsons and entailing the specialization of political roles; Weber’s concepts of secularization and rationality; and changes in cultural patterns, exemplified by Parsons’ ‘pattern variables’ following the conceptualization of modern and pre-modern social patterns produced by Tönnies in terms of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesselschaft (association) Modernization theory inspired an organic approach to comparative politics which was intended to integrate Third World political phenomena into a new theoretical framework The main arguments of the functionalist Preface ix perspective on comparative politics are presented, especially the concepts of function and ‘structural differentiation’ when applied to political systems, the motivation behind this theoretical position, and the main criticisms that have been levelled against it The idea of neo-colonialism explored in Chapter questions the significance of formal independence for post-colonial societies It was assumed that constitutional independence would mean that indigenous governments, representing the interests of local people rather than alien groups, would have sovereign state power at their disposal However, what the new rulers of many ex-colonies found was that the major proportion of the resources available to them were controlled from metropolitan centres that hitherto had ruled their countries directly Within political science the political manifestations of this domination proved difficult to describe in concrete terms, except for those for whom politics was merely an epiphenomenon of the economic The nature of the economic linkages could easily be described, but the domestic political effects were left to be inferred from them Dependency theory, which had its roots in the crisis of US liberalism in the late 1960s and a major critique of modernization theory, adds the idea of peripherality, or satellite status, to the concept of neo-colonialism It originated in an analysis of Latin America where circumstances that might be expected under conditions of colonialism or only recently liberated ex-colonies were found in states that had been independent since the early or mid-nineteenth century The main constituents of dependency theory are the idea of a hierarchy of states, the concept of ‘underdevelopment’, a view about the nature of capitalism, propositions concerning ‘disarticulation’, and the effect of economic dependency on the structure of political power The next four chapters turn to specific institutional arrangements and the attempts by political scientists to produce valid theoretical statements about the most significant political institutions in Third World societies: the state, political parties, the bureaucracy and the military Interest in the post-colonial 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Register 1977 London: Merlin Press Zubaida, S (1978) ‘Theories of nationalism’, in G Littlejohn (ed.), Power and the State London: Croom Helm Index access 6, 13, 14, 17, 20, 28, 40, 42, 89, 130, 144, 152, 164–7, 168, 169, 177, 180, 212, 225, 254, 264, 266, 270 accountability 131, 142, 149, 162, 171, 172, 177, 256, 258, 264, 268, 271, 272, 276, 278 accumulation 26, 42, 90, 91, 93, 102, 113, 146, 169, 183, 193, 270 Acheh 194 achieved status 48, 58 adaptation 47, 49, 65, 72 Aden 31 affectivity 48 African National Congress 148, 276 age groups 38 agriculture 1, 3, 4, 8, 12, 25–6, 31, 39–40, 59, 80, 83, 86, 88, 92, 96–7, 100, 114–15, 117, 119, 121, 156, 160, 162, 164–8, 205, 207, 216, 226–8, 244, 248, 260, 264 aid 5, 8, 9, 16, 17, 59, 61, 67, 75, 77, 82–4, 96, 101, 107, 115, 118, 148, 183, 189, 203, 205, 214, 220, 248, 252, 255, 264, 273, 276, 280–1 Algeria 28, 99, 145, 147, 178, 243, 245, 247, 275 Andean Pact 101 Angola 145, 148, 275, 276 APEC 18 Argentina 27, 121–2, 124, 139, 179, 230, 252, 254, 255, 256, 263, 264, 280 ascription 63 Asia 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 27, 32, 35, 43, 61, 62, 75, 93, 97, 116, 128, 131, 156, 171, 177, 196, 197, 199, 201, 214, 223, 237, 248, 250, 263, 270, 271, 275, 281 Asian Tigers 254, 277, 278 assimilation 37, 94, 96, 150, 196 Australia 18, 32 authoritarianism 8, 67, 73, 121–4, 132, 150, 185, 191, 221–2, 231, 239, 250–3, 255–7, 259, 264, 269, 270, 276–8 authority 22, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46, 54, 56, 58, 59, 62, 74, 90, 102–3, 108, 136, 151, 157–8, 164, 187, 190, 196, 213, 226, 234, 235, 240, 241, 245, 257, 263, 266 autocracy 143 Awami League 206, 217 Ayub Khan 217 Baluchistan 194, 199 Bengalis 205, 206, 217 Biafra 206, 208–10, 214 Bihar 164 Boer War 31 Bolivia 37, 237, 264 Bonapartism 112–13, 182 bonded labour 41, 103 Botswana 20, 147, 191, 222, 267 bourgeois ideology 42 bourgeoisie 19, 27, 81, 82, 91–3, 101–3, 112, 113–17, 120, 124, 132, 144, 168–9, 183, 215–17, 270–1 Brazil 20, 37, 92, 93, 99, 121, 122, 124, 138, 254, 264, 267, 268, 273, 275, 277 bureaucracy 41, 46, 55, 57, 58, 80, 82, 83, 102, 111, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 126, 132, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, 172, 183, 205, 216, 217, 224, 272, 276 310 Index 311 bureaucratic bourgeoisie 168, 270 bureaucratic-authoritarian state 121–4 bureaucratic-military oligarchy 115, 116, 119, 205, 216, 217 Burma 10, 23, 178, 194 Burundi 220, 275 Cambodia 275 Canada 12, 32 capital 14, 24–7, 29, 30, 32–3, 37, 40, 41, 75, 77–82, 86–92, 94–105, 107, 113–18, 120, 122, 123, 124, 127–32, 144, 146, 156, 165, 168, 182, 193, 205, 210, 213, 216, 220, 224, 227, 244, 262, 264, 277, 278 capitalism 22, 24–8, 30, 31, 39–41, 63, 88, 90, 91–7, 100, 102, 104–6, 110, 112–13, 117, 119, 129, 139, 142, 154, 169, 204, 244, 262 Caribbean 1, 15, 61, 237 cash crops 37, 38, 40, 116 caste 26, 36, 41, 112, 139, 153, 154, 155, 158, 201, 227 Catholic Church 62, 139 Central America 18, 228, 270 Central American Common Market 18 Chad 173, 275 Chagga 116 Chama Cha Mapinduzi 145 Chile 90, 121, 122, 124, 178, 252, 254, 263, 266 China 12, 14, 18, 23, 72, 142, 145, 170, 236, 237, 238, 245, 247, 248 Chittagong 194 CIA 81, 189 civil liberties 1, 231, 251, 264, 267 civil society 113, 118, 119, 120, 121, 125, 126, 132, 133, 155, 171, 172, 189, 191, 220, 253, 254, 257, 258, 259, 267–9, 270–1, 276, 280 civil war 27, 192, 194, 216, 219, 220, 223, 240, 275 claimants 158, 215 class 19, 26, 35, 41–3, 60, 62, 63, 81–2, 91–3, 99, 101–4, 106, 108, 111–17, 120–3, 126, 127, 132, 138–40, 147, 155, 159, 163–4, 167–9, 172, 181–3, 193, 198, 204–5, 207, 208, 213–17, 224–8, 231, 235, 239–40, 242–3, 245–9, 252, 254, 257, 260–4, 270–1, 276, 280, 282 clientelism 120, 140, 152–5, 158, 171, 263, 268–9, 272, 280 cohesion, social 65, 112, 181, 187, 232 Cold War 12, 17, 18, 84, 190 Colombia 139, 192, 220, 240 colonial intervention 36, 37, 39 colonialism 1–2, 12–13, 22–3, 25, 28, 31, 33–4, 39, 41–3, 56, 60, 67–8, 75, 76–8, 80–1, 84–5, 86, 89, 95, 97, 99–100, 103, 108, 114–15, 142–3, 147, 160, 163, 169, 198, 200–3, 205–6, 208–82 colonies 16, 23–4, 26, 27–8, 30–3, 35, 39, 42, 76, 78, 86, 94, 96–7, 111, 142, 175, 281 communalism 26, 155, 203 communism 9, 138, 236 competition 13–14, 28, 30, 31–4, 95, 109, 115, 117, 121–2, 130, 132, 136, 139, 144, 148–9, 150, 152, 170, 172, 181, 201, 203, 208, 215–16, 221–2, 225, 232, 248, 251, 265, 274 comprador bourgeoisie 19 conflict 18, 22, 25, 33, 42–3, 54, 60, 62, 64–5, 104, 113–16, 121, 127, 130, 135, 141, 144, 150, 154, 158, 168, 178–9, 182, 190–1, 195–6, 202–3, 207–8, 210, 216, 219, 220–3, 225, 227–8, 232–3, 239, 240–3, 247, 249, 253, 257, 260, 275, 277, 280 Congo, Belgian 187, 206 Congress Party, Indian 152 conservatism 60, 158 continuity 44, 50, 62, 68, 85, 147, 149, 164, 202, 213 Costa Rica 9, 138, 228, 264, 267 Cuba 10, 222, 237, 245, 247 cultural division of labour 204 cultural heterogeneity 233 cultural patterns 47–8 312 Index cultural secularization 70–3 cultural subordination 226 culture 36, 37, 53, 71, 117, 130, 139, 172, 188, 189, 193, 198, 200, 204, 212, 215, 218, 220, 280 decentralization 195, 196, 198 democracy 9–10, 17–18, 42, 54, 57, 69, 86–8, 90, 104, 110–11, 123, 142–3, 145–51, 159, 164, 172, 174, 181, 185, 190–1, 193, 221–3, 231, 232, 236–7, 238–9, 250–9, 261–78 democratic consolidation 149, 150, 258, 259–73 democratic transition 190, 252–9 democratization 8–9, 51, 62, 70, 126, 138, 148–50, 155, 172–3, 190–1, 238, 250–3, 257–8, 269–70 Democrats, USA 145 dependency 11, 17, 19–20, 22, 27, 40, 60, 68, 76–7, 79, 82–94, 101–7, 112, 131, 153, 160, 167, 182, 203, 225, 231, 247, 263, 279, 281, 282 dependency theory 11, 68, 77, 85, 87–8, 90, 93, 94, 102–7, 112 developing countries 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9–10, 12–14, 16, 18, 59, 67–8, 83–4, 96, 98–100, 108, 114, 127–31, 136, 141, 156, 159, 160, 168–9, 172, 178, 197, 216, 219, 228, 236–7, 241–2, 262, 270, 278 Development Decade 72, 221 differentiation, social 45–6, 49, 56, 58, 68, 70, 73, 123, 164, 203, 228, 249, 276 diffusion 48, 60, 75, 201, 202, 231 disarticulation 88, 90, 91, 101, 104 division of labour 17, 25, 45, 92, 101, 158, 204, 232 East Africa 37, 117, 132, 207 East Asia 2, 5, 6, 7, 14, 16, 17, 62, 93, 117, 128, 131, 156, 196 East Bengal 199, 217 East Pakistan 195, 197, 205, 216, 217 East Timor 195, 197 economic development 10, 13, 20, 24, 41–2, 49, 61, 82, 86, 89, 95–7, 100–1, 106–7, 118, 121–2, 124–5, 128, 131, 144, 148, 174, 176, 180–4, 192–3, 200, 209, 220–1, 224, 227, 249, 260–4, 267, 274, 276–9 economic growth 3–4, 8, 14, 15, 16–17, 20, 24, 29, 32, 46, 61, 68, 82, 84, 89–101, 123, 129, 130, 147, 156, 175, 184, 194, 208, 216, 220–1, 224, 226–30, 239, 248–9, 263, 277–82 economic power dependency 94 economic surplus 88, 168, 169 economism 31 education 6–9, 37, 41, 45, 49, 80, 87, 92–3, 96, 117, 130, 152, 160, 164–5, 171, 179, 187, 201, 204, 208, 226, 239, 246, 260, 263–4, 266–7, 277–80 efficiency 30, 58, 87, 130, 162, 163, 170, 171, 276 Egypt 179, 275 elites 18, 19, 46, 62, 66, 73, 81, 82, 93, 100, 111, 114, 127, 133, 136, 149, 152, 164, 167, 172, 200, 213, 215, 243–4, 252–4, 256–9, 267, 268, 280 Equador 139 equality 57, 62, 68, 70, 87, 103–4, 113, 139, 144, 153, 197, 206, 229, 235, 236, 239, 261–2, 277–8, 280 equilibrium, social 50–1, 70, 109–10, 244 Eritrea 195, 206, 211, 214 Ethiopia 23, 195, 251 ethnic groups 8, 144, 196–8, 201–3, 208–9, 211, 213–16, 224, 232 ethnicity 42, 116, 139, 150, 199–200, 201, 203, 211, 215, 227, 231, 239, 279 ethnie 199 ethnocentricity 68 ethno-nationalism 199–200, 218, 241 evolution 44, 60, 105, 248 Index 313 expertise 46, 75, 119, 123, 159, 160, 164, 168, 187, 188 human rights 10, 20, 131, 148, 192, 214, 220, 254, 273, 276 factionalism 113, 148, 153, 155, 166 FAO 161 feudalism 36, 103, 110, 181, 182 finance capital 27, 33, 102 Firestone Corporation 79 First World War 26, 31 FLN 147 foreign exchange 19, 20, 77, 118, 144, 205, 216 foreign investment 5, 13, 17, 20, 26–7, 29, 32, 37, 40, 41, 75, 77, 91, 93–8, 101, 103, 115, 117–18, 124, 127–9, 131, 133, 160, 183, 209, 212, 215–16, 220, 230, 277–8, 281–2 function, political 26, 31, 35, 49–56, 63, 69, 71–2, 86, 105–6, 115, 126, 131, 136, 141, 143, 151, 157, 161–3, 180, 188, 196, 204, 233, 267, 274, 276 functional prerequisites 49 functionalism 51, 58, 59, 65, 66, 69, 71, 114, 276 fundamentalism 9–10, 243, 275, 279 Ibos 208, 209, 210, 211 ideology 27, 42, 62, 80, 93, 136–9, 141–2, 145, 152, 156, 161, 163, 168, 169, 198, 200, 204, 217, 226, 243, 245, 249, 255, 274 imperialism 2, 14, 22–35, 39–41, 60, 67, 69, 77, 85, 94, 143, 212 implementation 125, 137, 157, 160, 224 import substitution 86, 87, 88, 92, 93 imports 14, 77, 94, 95, 97 indebtedness 8, 83 independence 1–2, 13, 24, 43, 49, 60, 67, 75–82, 85–6, 94–100, 111, 114, 116–21, 130, 132, 139, 142–7, 156, 163–4, 168, 173–4, 182–4, 194, 195–7, 201–2, 205, 207, 209–18, 226, 230, 234, 241, 247, 258, 265, 276 India 9, 14, 18, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 35, 40, 99, 117, 119, 120, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 146, 147, 152, 154, 155, 163, 164, 186, 194, 202, 213, 214, 217, 223, 226, 237, 246, 247, 248, 263, 264, 265, 267, 275 indirect rule 38 Indonesia 17, 99, 130, 138, 139, 177, 194, 195, 214, 215, 277, 281 Industrial Revolution 24 industrialization 14, 16, 20, 23, 41, 68, 86–8, 91–102, 110, 115, 118, 121–6, 179, 184, 201, 212, 216, 226, 227–8, 230, 260, 264, 271 inequality 20, 22, 63, 65, 94, 96, 102, 121–2, 134, 153–4, 208, 211, 235–9, 249, 261–2 infant mortality 5–7, 9, 15 inputs, political 52–3, 96, 164, 165, 171 institutionalization 70, 148, 149, 150, 180, 193, 241–2, 280 institutions 2, 30, 36, 38, 42, 45, 47, 51–2, 56, 66, 69, 73–4, 82, 84, 88, 90–1, 97, 104, 106, 108–14, 118–21, 128, 131–2, 135, 140, Gabon 20, 81 Gambia 9, 147, 173, 222, 275 Gemeinschaft 146 Germany 35 Ghana 76, 77, 142, 146, 148, 251 goals 3, 47, 62, 66, 68, 121, 144, 170, 191, 200, 204, 273 good governance 9, 84, 148, 276 Guatemala 173, 229, 275 haciendas 87 Haiti 173, 178, 275 health 6–9, 59, 66, 92, 96, 130, 160, 164–5, 170–1, 204, 219, 222, 227, 239, 246, 264, 269, 280 hierarchy 37, 38, 88, 89, 104, 105, 120, 157, 238 Honduras 228 Hong Kong 23 human development 1, 5, 8, 277 314 Index institutions – continued 142, 146, 155–7, 159, 161–4, 167–8, 172, 176–7, 179, 180–2, 185–6, 198, 205, 232–3, 237, 241–2, 257–9, 263, 266–8, 271–2, 276, 278, 280 instrumentalism 164 integration, political 1, 4, 38, 50, 54, 57, 64–5, 70, 72, 73–4, 86–7, 99, 107, 124, 135, 137–8, 141, 144, 151, 161, 195, 198, 200, 202–3, 210–14, 231–2, 257 integration theory 211 interdependence, economic 50, 65, 105, 118, 129, 246 interest aggregation 55, 136 interest articulation 55, 69, 200 internal colonialism 99, 200, 203–11 international division of labour 17, 25, 92, 101 international law 75, 79, 131, 195 Iran 9, 18, 23, 62, 177, 194, 204, 206, 243–5 Iraq 18, 194, 206 Ireland 25, 26 Islam 62, 63 Islamic Salvation Front 178 Italy 32, 35 Ivory Coast 80, 148, 151 J curve 229 Jamaica 147 Japan 12, 18, 63, 91 joint ventures 101 Kachin 194 Karen 194 Kashmir 194, 199, 213 Katanga 206 Kenya 39, 80, 99, 102–3, 120, 142, 146, 148, 163, 223, 276 Kosi Development Region 164 Kurdish Republic 214 Kurdistan 194, 206 labour 17, 25–8, 30, 39, 40–2, 45, 60, 63, 78, 81–2, 87–8, 92, 99, 101–3, 115–17, 130, 144, 156, 158, 162, 165, 168, 198, 204, 224–6, 232, 244, 246–8, 255, 270, 277, 281 land reform 83, 160, 246, 281 landless 116, 165, 247, 248 landlords 40, 103–4, 115–16, 139, 224, 240, 245–8, 281 language 10, 56, 109, 147, 154, 158, 196–9, 201, 204, 206, 215, 231–2 latifundia 88 Latin America 1, 2, 6–7, 10, 12, 15–16, 18–19, 43, 61–2, 86, 89–90, 92, 97, 102–3, 106–7, 121, 123–4, 126, 132, 137, 139, 148–9, 151, 156, 171, 173–4, 177, 180–2, 187, 190, 194–5, 226, 231, 238–9, 250, 253, 255–6, 260–1, 263–6, 269–72, 276, 279, 282 Latin American Free Trade Association 18 leadership, political 38, 63, 71, 100, 104, 133, 135–6, 138–40, 143–6, 151–2, 154, 162, 174, 177–8, 183, 186, 190–1, 210, 213, 216, 226, 240, 243, 245–6, 264, 267, 269, 271 legitimacy, political 38, 43, 54, 62, 87, 131, 135–7, 143, 149, 151–2, 161, 177, 179, 185, 187–8, 202, 231–5, 240, 244–5, 248, 255, 262, 265–7, 274–5 less developed countries 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 160, 183, 209, 212, 215, 216, 220, 230, 277, 278 Liberia 23, 275 Libya 9, 139, 264 life expectancy 5, 7, 9, 15, 20, 147 literacy 7, 15, 147, 175, 204, 216, 226, 260, 264, 280 loans 32, 83, 98, 101, 118, 165, 175, 176, 212, 217, 225 lumpen militariat 183 Malawi 275 Malaysia 16, 17, 18, 117, 139, 141, 222, 232, 281 Mali 121, 142, 163, 168, 169, 275 Index 315 malnutrition 7, 8, 231 manufacturing 3–4, 24, 28, 86–7, 89, 93, 95, 97, 100, 102, 123, 227, 261, 281 Mao Tse-tung 12 Marxism 22, 25–9, 111, 112, 114, 135, 139 Masai 116 Mauritius 147, 222 mediation 115, 154, 264 mercantilism 24, 89, 90 metropolis 88, 89, 103 metropolitan bourgeoisie 114, 115, 116, 117, 120 Mexico 20, 32, 121, 122, 138, 142, 237, 245, 247, 251, 256, 275 Middle East 1, 4, 7, 14, 15, 61, 75, 98, 250, 275 militarization 9, 231, 275 military 9, 12, 19, 22, 28, 30, 33, 38, 46, 63, 67, 69, 74, 76, 81–3, 88, 92–3, 99, 101–5, 111, 113–19, 121–3, 129, 130, 132–3, 138, 146–7, 152–3, 155, 159, 164, 168, 172–97, 205–6, 209, 210–14, 216–17, 219, 220, 223, 231, 240–1, 244–5, 250, 252–3, 255–9, 266, 269–70, 272, 275–6, 280 military aid 67, 189, 214 military embourgeoisement 183 military intervention 102, 104, 123, 138, 147, 173–6, 179–87, 190, 192–3, 241, 270, 280 military regime 74, 121, 178, 210, 257, 276 mining 39, 40, 209, 224 missionaries 29, 30, 33 Mizos 194 mode of production 25, 40, 115, 168, 169 modernization 11, 20, 44–7, 49–50, 52–3, 56–62, 64, 67–70, 73–4, 85–6, 89, 112, 122–4, 138, 144, 150, 179, 181, 200–2, 228, 231–2, 242, 252, 260, 276, 279 modernity 49, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 89, 114, 163, 185, 187, 202 Mon 194 monopoly capitalism 25 Moro National Liberation Front 194 Morocco 194, 196 Mozambique 145, 190, 275, 276 multinational corporations 17, 77, 81, 117 multi-party regimes 146 Nagaland 199 Nagas 194 nation 22, 25–6, 29–30, 49, 52, 54, 56–7, 60, 73, 75–6, 91–2, 97, 127–9, 131, 133, 137, 145–6, 149, 175, 189, 195–9, 201–2, 205, 208, 210–13, 215, 221, 231–4 nationalism 9, 60, 62, 97, 105, 189, 195–201, 203–8, 211–12, 216, 217–18, 241 nation-building 57, 73, 202, 231 nation-states 25, 75, 97, 202, 213, 221 natural economy 28 neo-colonialism 12, 13, 41, 75–85, 86, 89, 95, 97, 100, 281, 282 Nepal 148, 220, 275, 276 nepotism 172, 261 neutrality 58, 164 New World Order Nicaragua 229, 237, 244, 245, 253, 273 NICs 101, 156 Nigeria 99, 137, 141, 142, 146, 173, 183, 185, 187, 195, 202, 206, 207, 208–11, 215, 232, 275 North Korea 10, 142 nouveaux pauvres 228 OECD 14, 212 Ogaden 194 oligarchy 82, 86, 92, 111, 113, 115–16, 119, 135, 156, 163, 205, 216, 217, 250 OPEC 12, 18, 101 organization 28, 38, 44, 47, 56, 58, 62, 72, 92, 119, 126, 136, 138, 142–3, 144–5, 151–3, 157, 158, 161, 168–9, 174, 178–80, 182, 186–8, 316 Index organization – continued 204, 213, 218, 224–6, 239, 242, 245–6, 249, 262, 269, 272, 279 organism 50, 51, 52 outputs, political 52, 53, 55, 109, 112 overdeveloped state 118, 120, 132 Pakistan 6, 8, 18, 113, 114, 115, 117–19, 146, 161, 163–4, 173, 178, 186, 195, 197, 205–7, 216–17, 265 Papua New Guinea 206 parastatal 168 participation 57, 69–70, 82, 102, 122, 127, 135–6, 138, 141, 151–2, 162, 179, 180–1, 193, 203, 225, 228, 232–3, 237–9, 242, 246, 249, 251–3, 256, 258–9, 261, 263, 265, 268–9, 272, 278, 280 particularism 48, 97 patronage 8, 126, 135, 152, 154, 166, 172, 208, 280 patron–client relations 105, 153, 154, 155 pattern maintenance 50 pattern variables 47, 49, 54, 57, 58, 63, 86 patterns of dependence 93 peasantry 25, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249 per capita income 2–3, 14, 16, 93, 96, 205, 207, 224, 260, 263, 279 Pergau Dam 281 peripheral communities 86, 89, 203, 215 Peru 2, 173, 251, 254, 264, 273, 275 PETROBRAS 93 petty-bourgeoisie 116, 120 Philippines 17, 33, 130, 194, 223, 239, 244, 245, 254, 268, 275 plantations 37, 39, 40, 42, 87 pluralism 9, 88, 109–11, 148, 176, 201, 202, 221, 232, 258, 260, 263, 274 policy 16, 22, 28, 37–8, 42, 58, 76, 79–80, 82–4, 92, 95, 97, 105, 108, 110, 112, 117, 120, 122, 124–5, 127–9, 132–3, 136–7, 140, 144–5, 148, 151–2, 157, 160–2, 165, 167, 169, 171–2, 174, 178, 185, 190–1, 196, 214, 221, 223, 230, 259, 268, 272–3, 276, 278 Polisario 194 political annexation 23 political autonomy 76, 200, 206, 208, 281 political communication 55 political culture 15, 54, 57, 58, 125, 143, 155, 176, 185–6, 232, 233, 234, 235, 259, 265–7, 281 political functions 52, 55 political mobilization 62, 137, 142, 179, 181, 196, 215, 221, 242, 279, 280 political order 73, 144, 221, 228, 248 political organization 36, 38, 51, 72, 93, 139, 143, 144, 178, 179, 189, 225, 226, 227, 246, 279 political recruitment 41, 56, 58, 69, 119, 136, 149, 151, 160, 162, 172, 183, 205, 210, 246, 259, 261 political rights 30, 90, 110, 251, 258, 261, 264, 274 populism 62, 122 Portugal 27, 32, 90, 250 Portuguese 24, 34, 36, 37 post-colonial state 79, 108, 111–18, 120, 121, 131, 156, 161, 202, 203, 240 poverty 7, 9, 12, 14–16, 18–19, 20, 35, 60, 81, 84, 99, 130, 137, 138, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228, 247, 258, 260 pre-industrial society 242 pressure groups 52, 55, 80, 128, 133, 161, 162, 180 primary commodities 5, 17 professionalism 123, 164, 188, 192 progress 5–7, 14, 20, 29, 30, 43, 44, 53, 59, 61, 66, 68, 73, 96–7, 161, 221, 226, 230, 265, 275, 277, 279 quantitative analysis 263 race 55, 60, 147, 158, 198, 199, 201, 231 rationalization 46, 47, 57, 70, 279 Index 317 rationality 46, 47, 57, 60, 164, 166, 265 raw materials 13, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 39, 40, 97, 98, 115 rebellion 244 reciprocity 166, 167, 268 Red Army 247 regime 12, 28, 91–3, 116, 122, 124, 132, 135, 138, 141, 145, 147–8, 150, 163–4, 172, 174, 177–80, 183, 185–6, 188–9, 191, 194–7, 210, 219–23, 229, 242–3, 245, 249, 253, 255–7, 259, 261–2, 268–9, 275, 277–9 regionalism 215 relations of production 39, 40, 41, 90, 96, 102, 103, 115, 116 relative autonomy 114 relative deprivation 208, 212 religion 46, 55, 57, 61–2, 139, 144, 147, 150, 154, 187, 198–9, 201, 226, 231, 239, 242, 270 religious fundamentalism 9, 275, 279 Renamo 276 Republicans, USA 145 revolt 243 roles 37, 45, 46, 47–9, 51, 53–4, 56–8, 63–4, 72, 125, 136, 171, 191–2, 224, 226–7, 233–4, 238, 246–7 rule adjudication 57 rule application 55, 163 rule making 55, 57, 69 rural poor 138, 249, 268, 279, 281, 282 Rwanda 81, 275 Saudi Arabia 10, 62, 63 secessionist movements 195, 196, 199, 207 Second World War 2, 43, 50, 67, 75, 212, 219, 230 secondary structures 54 secularization 57, 61, 70, 73, 279 Sékou Touré 140 Senegal 2, 80, 145, 146 separatism 195–6, 199–200, 206, 207, 211, 214, 218, 275 Shan 194 Shanti Bahini 194 Sierra Leone 173, 219, 275 Sikhs 194 simultaneity bias 176 Singapore 17, 18, 117, 277 single-party system 140, 141, 142, 146 social evolution 44 social exchange 246 social mobilization 175, 180, 181, 201, 212 social mobility 117, 136, 169, 179, 181, 182, 183, 203, 226, 227, 243, 246 social structures 2, 36, 37, 47, 52, 55, 57–8, 60–1, 110, 248, 276, 280 socialization 56, 69, 235, 267 solidarity 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 62, 153, 198, 204, 217, 225, 248 Somalia 194, 195, 275 South Africa 29, 32, 148, 190, 191, 208, 276, 280 South Asia 2, 7, 16, 116, 196, 197, 199 South Korea 9, 18, 107, 117, 254, 277 Southern Africa 37 sovereignty 13, 17, 22, 42, 43, 63, 75, 76, 86, 88, 95, 100, 128, 130, 229 Soviet Union 1, 72, 142, 148, 220 specialization 44, 45, 56, 58, 184, 193, 232, 276 specificity 48, 57, 58 Sri Lanka 94, 96, 138, 141, 194, 202, 207, 214, 232, 275 stages of development 40, 44, 70, 112, 181, 228, 233, 247 state 26, 29, 31, 33, 38, 42, 46, 49, 52–4, 57–8, 60, 62–3, 69–70, 72–97, 101–33, 136–7, 139, 141–8, 152–83, 188, 190, 193–208, 210–19, 221, 224, 226, 229–31, 233–4, 238, 240–7, 257–72, 276–8, 280 state intervention 42, 86, 101, 110–11, 117, 118, 125–8, 133, 165, 167 318 Index status 1, 2, 10, 12, 20, 42–3, 46, 48, 52, 58, 60, 65–6, 68, 75, 86, 115, 119–20, 135, 140, 160–1, 164, 179, 183, 187, 198, 207, 211, 216, 222, 225–7, 236–7, 261, 266, 274, 280 structural adjustment 8, 170, 279 structural functionalism 51, 58 structures 2, 28, 36–9, 47, 49–58, 60–1, 63, 65–6, 68, 71–2, 74, 86–9, 93, 109–10, 115, 120, 124–7, 132, 154, 163, 179, 182, 187–8, 197, 222, 235, 243, 248, 257, 264–6, 276, 278, 280 Sub-Saharan Africa 2, 5, 6, 7, 14, 175, 184, 222, 250 Sudan 10, 52, 195, 219, 220, 275 Sulawesi 215 Sumatra 215 surplus 27–9, 33, 42, 88–9, 92, 95, 115, 168–9, 249, 281 Syria 10, 194 systems 2, 32, 36–8, 51–2, 54–5, 57, 59, 63, 66, 70–3, 100, 122, 125, 133, 136–7, 140–2, 144, 146–51, 153, 225, 272–3, 275–6 Taiwan 9, 18, 117, 125, 151, 239, 251, 252, 267, 277 take off 67 Tamil Nadu 199 Tamils 207, 232 Tanzania 20, 76, 116–17, 119–20, 138, 145–6, 148, 168–9, 232, 278 tautology 71 taxation 26, 28, 30, 38, 42, 54, 80, 94, 96, 100, 111, 129, 172, 213, 245 technical assistance 17 technocrats 122, 123, 183 technological development 128, 188 technology 14, 17, 33–6, 39, 47, 56, 59, 75, 78, 82, 87, 96, 105, 123, 130, 163, 170, 177, 226, 271 tenants 26, 40, 115, 153 terms of trade 30, 41, 90, 184 Thailand 2, 17, 18, 23, 138, 170, 178, 246, 252, 267, 272, 275, 277 Third Force 12 Togo 81, 173, 183 trade 4–5, 8, 10, 13, 17–18, 20, 24–6, 29–30, 32–5, 41–2, 79–80, 82, 86–7, 89–90, 98, 101–2, 116, 126–9, 131, 137, 144, 151, 168, 179, 183–4, 189, 195, 210, 212, 215, 225–6, 245, 253–4, 257, 269–70 tradition 46, 49, 57, 59–61, 63–4, 70, 143, 172, 199, 202, 221 traditional leaders 38, 270 traditional oligarchy 111 traditionalism 10, 221 treaty ports 23 tribe 55, 57, 60, 64, 144, 154, 158, 187, 227, 231 Tripuras 194 Turkey 179, 194, 206, 215, 267 Uganda 183, 232, 240, 275 UN 16, 161, 187, 192, 196 UNCTAD 17 underdevelopment 21–2, 47, 64, 67, 88, 92, 104, 106–7, 140, 144, 174, 182, 184, 192, 232, 277 UNESCO 14 Unilever 79 unilinearity 67, 68, 106 Union Soudanaise 151 Unita 276 United Fruit 79 United National Independence Party, Zambia 152 universal suffrage 110, 119 universalism 48, 57, 58, 63 Untouchables 139 urbanization 7, 20, 37, 41, 45, 47, 97, 147, 175, 179, 216, 227, 243, 260, 264 USA 12, 18, 32, 51, 80, 145, 170, 175, 189, 220, 231, 244, 273 USSR 12, 18, 255 Uttar Pradesh 139 Vietnam 8, 20, 85, 142, 245, 246, 269 warfare 18, 147 Index 319 wealth 8, 12, 15–16, 18, 41, 59, 61, 113, 116, 119, 122, 124, 169, 180, 182–3, 206, 208, 216, 227, 237, 244, 247, 260–1, 264, 270 West Africa 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 137, 151, 189, 203 West Papua 194 Western Sahara 194, 196 women 7, 8, 10, 15, 128, 137, 140, 172, 225–6, 233, 237–9, 251, 268–9 World Bank 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15, 16, 67, 83, 84, 134, 147, 148, 161, 162, 169, 170, 173, 280 World Development Fund 14 Zaire 81, 99, 195, 275 Zambia 9, 77, 94, 148, 152, 239 Zimbabwe 146, 148, 178, 190, 191, 241, 251, 276