The Conduct Of Inquiry In International Relations _ Philosophy Of Science And Its Implications_For The Study Of World Politics.pdf

The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations Philosophy of science and its implications for the study of world politics Tai Lieu Chat Luong The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations There[.]

Tai Lieu Chat Luong The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations There are many different scientifically valid ways to produce knowledge The field of International Relations should pay closer attention to these methodological differences, and to their implications for concrete research on world politics The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations provides an introduction to philosophy of science issues and their implications for the study of global politics The author draws attention to the problems caused by the misleading notion of a single unified scientific method and proposes a framework that clarifies the variety of ways that IR scholars establish the authority and validity of their empirical claims Jackson connects philosophical considerations with concrete issues of research design within neopositivist, critical realist, analyticist, and reflexive approaches to the study of world politics Envisioning a pluralist science for a global IR field, this volume organizes the significant differences between methodological stances so as to promote internal consistency, public discussion, and worldly insight as the hallmarks of any scientific study of world politics This important volume will be essential reading for all students and scholars of International Relations, Political Science and Philosophy of Science Patrick Thaddeus Jackson is Associate Professor of International Relations in the School of International Service at the American University in Washington, DC He is also Director of General Education for the university He is the author of Civilizing the Enemy (2006) and the co-editor of Civilizational Identity (2007) “The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations outlines a constructive and convincing path for getting beyond unproductive debates about the relative merits of the various methodologies that inform IR Calling for a post-foundational IR that rests on a more expansive definition of science than that which is conventionally accepted by the field, Patrick Jackson makes a compelling case for an engaged pluralism that is respectful of the different philosophical groundings that inform a variety of equally valid scientific traditions, each of which can usefully contribute to a more comprehensive and informed understanding of world politics.” J Ann Tickner, School of International Relations, University of Southern California “This is a book that will have a deep and lasting impact on the field It displays impressive and sophisticated scholarship, but lightly worn and presented in an engaging manner, student-friendly but never patronising or afraid to challenge the reader I know no better account of the various ways by which one can study IR scientifically and I am confident that this is a text that will be very widely adopted.” Chris Brown, Professor of International Relations, London School of Economics “Neatly framed, balanced, informed, lucid and, yes, important, this is the rare book I wish I had written myself Not that I could have done it nearly as well.” Nick Onuf, Professor Emeritus, Florida International University “In this vigorously argued, incisive and important book P.T Jackson liberates us from the misplaced polarity between “hard, scientific” and “soft, interpretive” approaches that has bedeviled international relations scholarship for half a century Neither approach has any grounding among philosophers of science with their insistence on the irreducibly pluralist nature of science The immense value of this book is its accessibility and the intimate connections it builds between theories of international relations and their philosophical foundations – or lack thereof Neo-positivist, reflexivist, critical realist and analytical stances can now engage in ecumenical dialogue rather than shouting matches or with silent scorn If you are accustomed to worship only in your favorite chapel, here is an invitation to visit a magnificent cathedral Graduate field seminars in international relations now have access to a first-rate text.” Peter J Katzenstein, Walter S Carpenter, Jr Professor of International Studies, Cornell University “Not only is The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations a breathtakingly original and rigorous analysis of the scholarly work in the field, it is also an excellent teaching tool for graduate and upper level undergraduate students By showing how ontological starting points lead to a variety of methodological options, Patrick Jackson opens up a broad toolkit for the production of knowledge in IR His use of philosophy of science is both rich and accessible to the unacquainted reader, and brings to the light numerous misunderstandings, false argumentations, and incorrect presumptions that have become common to the field As a result, the Conduct of Inquiry is both revealing and instructive, and a must-read to all who have an interest in reflecting on what’s actually being done in IR.” Gerard van der Ree, University College Utrecht The New International Relations Edited by Richard Little, University of Bristol, Iver B Neumann, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI), and Jutta Weldes, University of Bristol The field of international relations has changed dramatically in recent years This new series will cover the major issues that have emerged and reflect the latest academic thinking in this particularly dynamic area International Law, Rights and Politics Developments in Eastern Europe and the CIS Rein Mullerson The Logic of Internationalism Coercion and accommodation Kjell Goldmann Russia and the Idea of Europe A study in identity and international relations Iver B Neumann The Future of International Relations Masters in the making? Edited by Iver B Neumann and Ole Wæver Constructing the World Polity Essays on international institutionalization John Gerard Ruggie Realism in International Relations and International Political Economy The continuing story of a death foretold Stefano Guzzini European Integration and National Identity The challenge of the Nordic states Edited by Lene Hansen and Ole Wæver Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars A political economy of intra-state war Dietrich Jung Contemporary Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace Research Edited by Stefano Guzzini and Dietrich Jung Observing International Relations Niklas Luhmann and world politics Edited by Mathias Albert and Lena Hilkermeier Does China Matter? A Reassessment Essays in memory of Gerald Segal Edited by Barry Buzan and Rosemary Foot International Relations, Political Theory and the Problem of Order Beyond international relations theory? N.J Rengger European Approaches to International Relations Theory A house with many mansions Jörg Friedrichs War, Peace and World Orders in European History Edited by Anja V Hartmann and Beatrice Heuser The Post-Cold War International System Strategies, institutions and reflexivity Ewan Harrison States of Political Discourse Words, regimes, seditions Costas M Constantinou Hegemony and History Adam Watson The Politics of Regional Identity Meddling with the Mediterranean Michelle Pace Territorial Conflicts in World Society Modern systems theory, international relations and conflict studies Edited by Stephan Stetter The Power of International Theory Reforging the link to foreign policymaking through scientific enquiry Fred Chernoff Ontological Security in International Relations Self-identity and the IR state Brent J Steele Africa and the North Between globalization and marginalization Edited by Ulf Engel and Gorm Rye Olsen The International Politics of Judicial Intervention Creating a more just order Andrea Birdsall Communitarian International Relations The epistemic foundations of international relations Emanuel Adler Pragmatism in International Relations Edited by Harry Bauer and Elisabetta Brighi Human Rights and World Trade Hunger in international society Ana Gonzalez-Pelaez Civilization and Empire China and Japan’s encounter with European international society Shogo Suzuki Liberalism and War The victors and the vanquished Andrew Williams Constructivism and International Relations Alexander Wendt and his critics Edited by Stefano Guzzini and Anna Leander Transforming World Politics From empire to multiple worlds Anna M Agathangelou and L.H.M Ling The Politics of Becoming European A study of Polish and Baltic post-Cold War security imaginaries Maria Mälksoo Security as Practice Discourse analysis and the Bosnian War Lene Hansen Social Power in International Politics Peter Van Ham The Politics of Insecurity Fear, migration and asylum in the EU Jef Huysmans International Relations and Identity A dialogical approach Xavier Guillaume State Sovereignty and Intervention A discourse analysis of interventionary and non-interventionary practices in Kosovo and Algeria Helle Malmvig The Puzzle of Politics Inquiries into the genesis and transformation of International Relations Friedrich Kratochwil Culture and Security Symbolic power and the politics of international security Michael Williams The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations Philosophy of science and its implications for the study of world politics Patrick Thaddeus Jackson The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations Philosophy of science and its implications for the study of world politics Patrick Thaddeus Jackson First published 2011 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2011 Patrick Thaddeus Jackson All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus The conduct of inquiry in international relations: philosophy of science and its implications for the study of world politics/ Patrick Thaddeus Jackson p cm – (The new international relations) International relations – Philosophy International relations – Methodology International relations – Research World politics I Title JZ1305.J318 2010 327.101 – dc22 2010010523 ISBN 0-203-84332-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 13: 978–0–415–77626–4 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–77627–1 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–84332–1 (ebk) This book is dedicated to the memory of Hayward Alker and Charles Tilly in the hope that something of their pluralist spirit lives on in its pages and in its readers 254 Bibliography Ruggie, John Gerard 1998 “Epistemology, ontology, and the study of international regimes.” In Constructing the world polity, 85–101 London: Routledge Rule, J.B 1997 Theory and progress in social science Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Rytovuori-Apunen, Helena 2005 “Forget ‘post-positivist’ IR!: The legacy of IR theory as the locus for a pragmatist turn.” Cooperation and Conflict 40, no 2: 147–177 Sagan, Carl 1997 The demon-haunted world: Science as a candle in the dark New York: Ballantine Books Sankey, Howard 1993 “Kuhn’s changing concept of 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causal powers and 101; critical realism and 76, 81–88, 110; deductive inference and 80, 82–83; inductive inference and 81, 83; transcendental arguments and 102, 109; transfactualism and 81–88, 88–92; undetectables and 89; unobservables and 81–88 abstractions 122, 126–127 Adorno, Theodor 176 Ady, Thomas agent-structure problem 27 Alker, Hayward 53 Althusser, Louis 177–178 analyticism 112–155, 168, 178; case comparisons and 152–155, 197; causal analysis and 146–152; constructivism and 206; dis-solving Descartes and 116–122; ideal-types and 142–146; intersubjectivity and 126–135; methodological diversity and 207, 208–210; narratives of 115, 154–155; Nietzsche and 122–126; philosophicalontological commitments and 37–38; pluralism and 197–201; public opinion and 225n31; vs reflexivity 156, 157; relativism and 135–141; see also critical realism; mind-world monism; neopositivism; phenomenalism; reflexivity Archer, Margaret 76 Ashley, Richard 8, 233n13 Bacon, Francis 44 Ball, Terrance 54 baseball 133–135, 140 Bennett, Andrew 67, 108–110, 222n38 Berger, Peter 174, 203 Berkeley, George 121 Bernstein, Richard 47 Bhaskar, Roy 36, 76, 89, 90, 91 Blaney, David 210–211 Boghossian, Paul 136–137 Bohm, David 80 Bohman, James 35, 36, 214n11 boundaries 135 Bourdieu, Pierre 172–173, 231n20, 232n27 Boyd, Richard 76 Bull, Hedley 5–6, 7, 8, 21 Bunge, Mario 76 capitalism 103, 174–175 Carr, David 61 Carr, E.H 4–5, 6, 122, 187 Cartesian anxiety: Berger and Luckmann and 203; critical realism and 84; crosscase covariation and 71; dis-solving 115–122, 139–140, 146, 203; empiricism and 47–50, 60; Hegel and 164; idealism as inversion of 121–122; intersubjectivity and 129; Kant and 49–50, 120–121, 160, 186; mind-world dualism and 44–47, 47–50, 117; Nietzsche and 122–123, 126; physical world and 93, 96–98; referenceindependence and 93–96; stratification of reality and 99; see also Descartes, René case comparison 68, 147–148, 228n50; analyticism and 152–155, 197; critical realism and 76, 108–111, 152–153, 197; methodologies’ differing purposes for 197, 200–201; neopositivism and 69–71, 108–109, 152, 197; reflexivity and 186, 197 260 Index causality 208, 228n49; as causal powers 91–92, 100–104; causal properties and 99, 111; covariation definition of 69–71; critical realism and 76, 108–111; crosscase covariations and 100, 218n27; Hume and 63–65, 120; Kant and 65; King, Keohane, and Verba and 66–68; logic of 147–148; methodologies’ differing procedures for 199–200; Ragin and 226n38; singular causal analysis and 114–115, 146–152; transfactualism and 74–75; Wittgenstein and 11–12 certainty 51, 59; Nietzsche and 122–123; uncertainty 66 class 169, 177 classifications 34, 36, 95, 184; lexicons and 192; reflexivity and 157–158 cognition 49 cognitive psychology 102 coincidental causes 151 commitments 34–35, 37–38, 41; see also wagers common sense 42, 49, 75, 120, 176, 190; mind-independent world and 76 common sense realism 84, 95 communication 124, 162; comprehensibility and 138, 194 concept-dependent objects 89 conceptualization 82 conceptual vocabulary 14–15 constant conjunctions 63–69, 75, 120 constitutive explanation 104–108 constructive empiricism 80 constructivism 42–43, 134, 139, 141–142, 201–207; neopositivism and 233n12; Wendt and 72, 201 controlled settings 198; see also laboratory experimentation; transcendental arguments conventionalism 33 core wagers 32–40 counterfactuals 115, 142, 149, 199, 208 covariation 42, 66, 69–71, 74, 200; vs correlation 215n2; see also cross-case covariations covering-laws 43, 103, 113, 204 Cox, Robert 182–184 critical elaboration 175 critical realism 36, 59–60, 72–111, 156, 219n7; abduction and unobservables and 76, 81–88, 88–92, 110; agent-structure problem and 27; case comparison and 76, 108–111, 152–153, 197; constitutive explanations and 104–108; constructivism and 206; laboratory settings and 102–104; methodological diversity and 207, 208–209; mindindependent world and 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 198; philosophical-ontological commitments and 37–38, 73; pluralism and 197–201; reference independence and 93–98; Sagan’s invisible dragon and 78–81; stratification of reality and 98–104; transfactualism and 74–75, 76, 77–92; Wendt and 72–74; see also analyticism; neopositivism; realism; reflexivity critical reflexivity: intellectual class and 177–178; Marxism and 175–176; see also reflexivity Critique of Pure Reason (Kant) 49 cross-case covariations 70, 71, 98, 203, 231n26; causality and 100, 218n27; critical realism and 76; neopositivism and 108, 156, 200, 208; unobservables and 109 cultural prestige of science 17–18 cultural values 143 culture industry 176 data collection 68, 83, 109, 147; large-n methods of 39, 67, 70, 200, 209; small-n methods of 66, 67, 70, 200, 203, 209 debates in IR 3–9, 39–40, 57, 72–73, 202 deductive inference 80, 82–83; see also abductive inference deductive-nomological explanation 65 deferral of gratification 176 definitions 117 definitions of science 193–196; broad 18, 19, 25; Bull and 5–6, 7, 8; Carr and 4–5, 6; dangers of narrow 206; diverse 34; goals of science as 18–23; metamethodological lexicon and 211–212; Morgenthau and 3–4, 5, 6; Weber and 20–22, 24, 193 Deleuze, Gilles 178 demarcation problem 50; Kuhn and 13–15; Lakatos and 15–16; logical positivists and 11–12, 14, 15; Popper and 12–13, 14 Index 261 democracy 41–42, 62, 66 Demon-haunted World, The (Sagan) de-naturalizing assumptions 186, 200, 201 Descartes, René 31, 44–48, 164, 216n7; Berger and Luckmann and 203; Dewey and 127; God and 45–47, 48, 119; Kant on 121; mind-world monists and 117–118; Nietzsche and 126; see also Cartesian anxiety Dessler, David 90–91, 203 detectable objects: neopositivism and 98; reference-independence and 96; undetectables 85–92, 104, 106 detectable unobservables 85–88, 221n20; reference-independence and 95–96; undetectable unobservables 85–92 detection devices 38, 60, 85–88, 90, 92; conceptual 56, 62, 87, 128, 140, 146; physical 62–63, 87, 129–130, 132, 141 Deutsch, Karl 53 Dewey, John 33, 126–127, 143, 146 dinosaurs 84–85, 86 disciplining function of science 9–10 discontinuous jumps 55–56 disinterestedness 170–174 dispositional properties 104 double consciousness 179, 180 doubt 45, 120, 160 Dreyfus, Hubert 130 Dreyfus, Stuart 130 dualism see mind–world dualism DuBois, W.E.B 179–181 Easton, David 137, 145 electrons 84, 85, 87, 90 empirical evidence 6, 21–22, 105; applications of 104; claims of 178–179; disputes on 30; falsification and 13–14; generalizations about 153; interpretation of 86–87; knowledge-production and 8–9; observations of 145; reflexivity and 165, 168; wagers and 35 empirical research 18, 19, 26, 57–59 empiricism 113, 141; Cartesian anxiety and 47–50, 60; electrons and 84; Hobbes and 117; logical positivism and 50; neopositivism vs critical realism and 59–60; phenomenalism and 59–63 Engels, Friedrich 103 Enloe, Cynthia 185 entity realism 94 epiphenomenalism 97 epistemic warrants 178–179, 181, 183 epistemology 26, 73–74, 170; putting ontology before 27–28, 30–31 equipment 129–130, 132, 141; conceptual 56, 62, 87, 128, 140, 146 Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke) 2, 118 essences 119 ethics 144–145 evaluative judgments 21–22 evidence 95 evil genius deception 45–46 existence 45–47 experience 50, 88; correction of by reason 120; critical realism and 73, 74, 75; Hobbes on 117; Hume and 63; indispensability claims and 102; intuition and 130–131; Kant and 121, 160; mediated vs immediate 60–63; mind–world monism and 114, 159; Nietzsche and 122–123, 124–126; phenomenalism and 68; practical activities and 130; rules of 148–149; scholarship evaluation and 144; Waltz and 113–114; see also detection devices; equipment; phenomenalism; sensory experience; transfactualism experiential science 61, 131, 141, 144, 148, 215n16 experimental science 85, 215n16 explaining, understanding and 8–9, 21, 29–30, 105, 211 Explaining and Understanding International Relations (Hollis and Smith) 8–9 explanation 63, 65–67, 158; deductivenomological 65; prediction and 111, 218n26; unobservables and 79 explanatory accounts 88; causal powers and 104; content of scientific knowledge and 18–19; framework of 55; idealtypification and 154; knowledge and 64–65; unobservables and 81, 82–84, 89–90 explanatory power 79; constitutive explanation and 104–108; unobservables and 89–90 262 Index facts 38, 145, 195 falsifiability/falsification 1, 51–57, 66, 151; ambiguities of 43–44, 52–57; analyticism and 152; causal powers and 101–102; demarcation problem and 12–15; idealtypes and 145–146; importation of into IR 57–59; mind-world monism and 114; neopositivist methodology and 43–44, 52–57; physical world’s existence and 93; reflexivity and 169; unobservables and 77, 81; see also neopositivism; Popper, Karl feminism 42–43, 181, 234n19; reflexivity and 184–185, 187 Flyvbjerg, Bent 2, 130–131, 224n13 Foucault, Michel 43 foundations 196 frameworks 14–15, 55, 137–138, 152 Frankfurt School 24, 176–177 freedom 163–166 Freud, Sigmund 11, 53–54 Friedman, Milton 79 fundamentals 234n20 games 131–135, 224n16; see also rules Geertz, Clifford 62, 132 gender 43, 159, 180, 185 generalizations: vs analytic narratives 115; law-like 3, 12–13, 80–81, 101, 108–109, 111; mind-world gap and 31 general laws 65–66, 199 George, Alexander 67, 108–110, 222n38 Gilpin, Robert 90 global hegemony 183 God 189; Descartes and 45–47, 48, 119; Locke and 119; Sagan and Godwin’s Law 17, 213n7 Goertz, Gary 68 Goldstein, Judith 206 government 118 Gramsci, Antonio 24, 175, 176, 183 gross domestic product 62 Guattari, Félix 178 Habermas, Jürgen 183 Hacking, Ian 157, 161 Harding, Sandra 180 Hawkesworth, Mary 181 Hegel, G.W.F 163–167, 170, 230n9, 230n10 Heidegger, Martin 129–130 Hempel, Carl 65–66, 74, 80, 218n26 Heschel, Abraham Joshua 188, 190 hierarchies 185 Higgs bosons 89, 221n21 Hirschman, Albert O 19–20, 58 historical science 85 history 163, 165–166, 170 Hobbes, Thomas 47–48, 98–99, 223n5; Cartesian anxiety and 117–118, 120, 121; Nietzsche and 124 holistic view of society 170–174 Hollis, Martin 8–9, 21, 28–29, 105 Hopf, Ted 203 Horkheimer, Max 176 human beings 90; Keohane and 229n2; reflexivity and 157–158; relations of 124; sensibility of 49–50, 160 Hume, David 12, 48–49, 50, 67, 74; Cartesian anxiety and 119–120, 121; causality and 63–65, 120; hypothesis testing and 69; logical positivism and 213n5 Husserl, Edmund 61 hypothesis testing 36, 53, 151; abductive inference and 83; alternatives to 186; vs analytic narratives 115; case comparison and 69–71; as goal of IR 7–8; ideal-types and 145–146; neopositivism and 42; social objects and 98; see also falsifiability/falsification; neopositivism; Popper, Karl idealism 115–116, 166, 216n10, 223n3, 223n8; Carr and 4–5; as inversion of Cartesian anxiety 121–122; Kant and 49 idealization 143 ideal-typification 37–40, 142–146, 197–201, 215n3; analytical depictions of 146–152, 152–155; limitations of 154–155; Weber and 37, 114, 145, 153 Ideas and Foreign Policy (Goldstein and Keohane) 206 imagination 59, 150 imperial rule 154 importations of scientific concepts 27, 57–59, 177 Inayatullah, Naeem 210–211 incommensurability 15, 56, 192 indispensability claims 102 Index 263 inductive inference 81, 83 innovation 32 in-principle unobservables 36, 38, 79–80 input factors 80, 108 instrumentalism 79–80 intellectuals 168–182; as agents of revolutionary praxis 174–179; diversity of standpoints of 179; holistic view and 170–174; problem of 168–170 International Relations (IR) 3, 10–16, 31, 39, 42, 51 international system 96, 149 interpretivism 36, 204 intersubjectivity 92, 126–135; rules of practical involvement and 128–135 intuition 64, 130–131 INUS-complexes (Insufficient, Nonredundant, Unnecessary, Sufficient) 199, 222n39 IR; see International Relations (IR) James, Patrick 58 James, William 141, 209–210 justice 21 Kant, Immanuel 35, 229n5; analyticism and 142; Cartesian anxiety and 49–50, 120–121, 160, 186; causality and 65; dialectical responses to 160–167; Nietzsche and 126; pluralism and 229n6; sensory experience and 60, 216n11 Kaplan, Morton 52–53 Keohane, Robert 2, 27, 158, 206; causality and 66–68; hypothesis testing and 7–8; logical positivism and 228n1; as mind–world dualist 36; public criticism and 194; reflectivism and 158, 229n2 King, Gary 2, 27, 36, 194; causality and 66–68; hypothesis testing and 7–8 Klotz, Audie 26, 204 Knorr, Klaus knowledge 17, 119, 120; boundaries of 135–141; methodologies’ differing views of 198 Kuhn, Thomas 13–15, 192, 217n14; on certainty 59; falsification and 53–57; Lakatos and 217n17; Popper and 55–57, 137; relativism and 213n5; Vasquez and 58 Kurki, Milja 82, 105 labor 166 laboratory experimentation 100–104, 109–110, 167, 198; detachment and 170; settings of 69–70; see also transcendental arguments Laitin, David 2, 36, 209 Lakatos, Imre 15–16, 19, 37–38, 226n34; on certainty 59; falsification and 53–57; Kuhn and 217n17; retrospect and 217n18; Vasquez and 58 Lapid, Yosef 72 Larson, Deborah 101 Laudan, Larry 16, 17, 19, 217n19 law-like generalizations 3, 12–13, 80–81; causal powers and 101; neopositivist case comparison and 108–109; prediction and 111 law of non-contradiction 136–137 Leviathan (Hobbes) 48 Levy, Marion lexicon of IR 191–207; constructivism and 201–207; definition of science in 193–196; metamethodological 211–212; wagers in philosophical ontology and 196–201; see also vocabulary lies 123–124 Linklater, Andrew 183 Locke, John 1–2, 48, 50, 118–121, 223n7 logic 11, 117–118, 135–136, 207; causality and 147–148; of inference 67 logical positivism 11–12, 14, 15, 44, 50–52; Ball on 54; criticisms of 59; falsification as inversion of 55; Hume and 213n5; Keohane and 228n1; physical world’s existence and 93; unobservables and 77, 80–81 Logic of Scientific Discovery (Popper) 81 Luckmann, Thomas 174, 203 Lupovici, Amir 203 Lynch, Cecelia 26, 204 McAdam, Doug 153 McKeown, Timothy 67–68 McMichael, Philip 186–187 Mahoney, James 68 Making Social Science Matter (Flyvbjerg) 2, 130 Mannheim, Karl 171–173, 187 marginalization 180, 185 Marx, Karl 11, 103, 166–168, 231n22 264 Index Marxism 77, 103, 234n19; class and 169; critical reflexivity and 175–176; materialism and 174–175; reflexivity and 166–168, 183, 187, 231n22; scientific status of 53 masculine characteristics 180 mass 91–92 master-slave relationship 106–107 materialism 96, 167, 174–175 mathematics 45 Mearsheimer, John 183 mediated perception 60–63 Meditations on First Philosophy (Descartes) 44, 46 methodologies 25–26, 36, 67, 151, 234n20; as articles of faith 188–189; case comparisons in varying 197, 200–201; causality and 199–200; commitments of 39; concepts in 20; constructivist vs true 201–207; diversity of 207–212; vs method 218n29; as ontologically specific 26–28; philosophical ontology and 30–31; premises of 193; standards of 25; see also pluralism in IR methods 25–26, 36, 70; vs methodology 218n29; quantitative/qualitative divide and 67 Michelson, Albert 85–86 Miliband, Ralph 103 Mill, John Stuart 70, 147, 219n34 Mills, C Wright 103 mind-independence 31, 92–108, 215n14; case comparisons and 108–111; constitutive explanation and 104–108; physical world and 93, 96–98; referenceindependence and 93–96; stratification of reality and 93, 98–104; see also critical realism mind-independent world 46, 66, 215n14; analyticism and 114, 116–120, 124–127, 129, 134, 136–137, 152; common sense and 76; conjectural claims and 55; critical realism and 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 198; falsification and 52; hypothesis testing and 42; phenomenalism and 59, 141, 143; reflexivity and 156, 157, 159, 197; researcher/world relationships and 35–36; Wight and 19; see also analyticism; critical realism; reflexivity; transfactualism mind–world dualism 44–59; Cartesian anxiety and 44–47, 47–50, 117; domination of 190; explanatory knowledge and 64–65; falsification and 52–57; hypothesis testing and 42, 68; importation ironies and 57–59; Keohane and 158; logical positivism and 50–52; mind–world monism and 38, 197; Nietzsche and 122–126; presumption of 31–32; reflexivity and 168; researcher/world relationships and 35–37; separation of ontology and epistemology and 74; subjectivism and 216n8; unobservables and 77; Waltz and 114; see also mind–world monism mind–world gap 59, 66, 68, 115, 146, 197; generalizations and 31; Kant and 65, 121 mind–world monism 115–141; Cartesian anxiety and 116–122; intersubjectivity and 126–135; mind–world dualism and 38, 197; Nietzsche and 122–126; relativism and 135–141; researcher/world relationships and 35–37; transfactualism and: see reflexivity; Waltz and 114; see also analyticism; mind–world dualism; reflexivity models 146–148, 151 modes of inquiry 9–10 monism: differentiation between types of 168–169; transfactualism and 223n2; Waltz and 223n1; see also mind–world dualism; mind–world monism Monteiro, Nuno 190, 219n4 Montezuma 115–116 Moon, Donald 62 moral deliberation 161 moral principles 169 Moravscik, Andrew 208 Morgenthau, Hans 3–4, 5, 6, 122 Morley, Edward 85–86 Nandy, Ashis 179 naturalism 33, 139 natural sciences 1, 5, 49, 97; analyticism and 140; critical realism and 77, 98, 102; explaining and 8–9; falsification and 53, 54; gender and 180; neopositivist case comparison and 69; reflexivity and 157; sensory experience and 27; unobservables and 77, 87 Index 265 neo-Gramscian traditions 24 neo-Kantian thinkers 162 neoliberal institutionalists 30 neopositivism 40, 41–71, 76; alternatives to 182, 186, 207–212; Cartesian anxiety and 47–50; case comparison and 69–71, 108–109, 152, 197; causality and 105, 111, 115; constant conjunctions and 63–69, 120; constitutive explanations and 107–108; constructivists and 233n12; critical theorists and 184; cross-case covariation and 108, 156, 200, 208; Descartes and 44–47; detectables and 98; domination of in IR 190, 203–204, 205–206; falsification, ambiguities and 43–44, 52–57; importation ironies and 57–59; Keohane and 158; logical positivism and 50–52; phenomenalism and 59–69; philosophical-ontological commitments and 37–38; pluralism and 197–201; positivism and 33, 36, 214n9, 219n2; vs reflexivity 156; stratification of reality and 99–103; Waltz and 113–114, 205; see also analyticism; Cartesian anxiety; critical realism; mind–world dualism; phenomenalism; reflexivity Neptune 82, 87, 90 Newton, Isaac 92 Nexon, Daniel 154 Nietzsche, Friedrich xii, 122–126 nihilism 122–123 Niiniluoto, Ilkka 76 nomothetic variety of comparison 200 non-representational knowledge claims 159 noumenal objects 216n11 objectivity xii, 170, 180, 182, 191 objects 93, 166; observable 96, 98; see also unobservables observations 145; causal-process 68; critical realism and 76; data and 68, 83; direct 88; explanatory knowledge and 65–67; Hobbes and 99; Hume and 49; Kant and 65; mind–world gap and 31; observable input/output and 80; Popper and 52, 60; see experience; unobservables ontology 26–32; commitments of as foundational 41; Wendt and 72, 73–74; Wight and 19, 26–28; see also philosophical ontology; scientific ontology Onuf, Nicholas G 139, 224n14 order 21 output factors 80, 108 paradigms 55, 57–58 parsimony 27 Parsons, Talcott 142 partisan criticism 172 Patomäki, Heikki 28, 75 peer review 189 perception 60–63, 134; see also experience perfection 46 perspective: detached 171–173; epistemically superior 170; see also experience; observation phenomenalism 37, 44, 59–69, 141–152, 182, 195, 215n16; causal analysis and 146–152; constant conjunctions and 63–69; covariation causality and 42; critical realism and 74, 156; domination of 190; empiricism and 59–63; idealtypification and 142–146; Keohane and 158; transfactualism and 38, 197; Waltz and 113–114; see also analyticism; experience; sensory experience phenomenology 61 philosophical ontology 28–32, 233n16; commitments of 37–38, 39; critical realism as 37–38, 73; methodological diversity and 208; wagers and 34–35, 196–201 physical world 93, 96–98 physics: undetectables and 89; unobservables and 77, 79, 82, 85–86 Pickering, Andrew 140 Pierce, Charles Sanders 83 Plato 44 pluralism in IR 32, 188–212; constructivism and 201–207; definition of science in 193–196; Kant and 229n6; methodological diversity and 207–212; vocabulary of 191–207; wagers in philosphical ontology and 196–201; Weber and 162 Politics Among Nations (Morgenthau) Popper, Karl 51–52; Ball on 54; on certainty 59; demarcation problem and 12–13, 14; falsification and 1; Kuhn and 55–57, 137; Lakatos on 55–57; on 266 Index observation 52, 60; unobservables and 80–81; see also falsifiability/falsification positivism 33, 36, 214n9, 219n2; see also neopositivism post-colonial scholarship 185, 186, 234n19 post-foundational IR 189 postmodernism 116 Poulantzas, Nicos 103 power 185; causality and 91–92, 100–104, 105, 111 practical involvements: analyticism and 142; Kant and 161; reflexivity and 157, 165; relativism and 135–141; rules of 127, 128–135; utility of 124–126 pragmatic rule 146 predictions 111, 119, 160, 218n26 Price, Richard 203 privilege 170 probabilistic laws 65 progress 56, 58, 165, 211 provisionalism 80 pseudomorphosis 206, 234n18 pseudoscience Psillos, Stathis 76 public opinion 87, 145, 193–196, 211–212, 220n19; analyticism and 225n31 Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) technique 68 qualitative methods 7–8, 67, 68, 231n26 quantitative methods 7–8, 67, 68 quarks 82–83, 89 Quine, W.V.O 33, 144 Ragin, Charles 68, 218n30, 226n38 rational-choice theory 151 rationality, dominant standards of 182 realism 30, 33, 219n7; Carr and 4–5; common sense realism and 84, 95 reality, stratification of 93, 98–104 reason 128; Cartesian anxiety and 47; experience and 50, 120; Hegel and 164–165, 167; Hobbes on 117–118; Hume on 48; Kant and 160, 163; mind–world dualism and 44–45; Sagan on 2; universality of 161 received wisdom 45 reciprocity 20 reductionism 213n4, 222n32 reference 92 reference-independence 93–96 reflexivity 156–187; capitalism and 174–175; case comparison and186, 197; constructivism and 206; critical 175–176, 177–178; disinterested search for truth in 170–174; diversity of standpoints in 179–182; everyday activities and 175–176, 178; Frankfurt School and 176–177; Hegel and 163–167; IR scholarship use of 182–187; Kant and 160–163; Marx and 166–168, 183, 187, 231n22; methodological diversity and 207, 208–209; philosophical-ontological commitments and 37, 39; pluralism and 197–201; problem of intellectuals and 168–170; as transfactual monism 156–157; see also analyticism; critical realism; intellectuals; neopositivism regression analysis 147–148 relativism 49, 127, 128; Flyvbjerg and 2; Godwin’s Law and 17, 213n7; Kuhn and 213n5; methodological 209; refuting 135–141 religious discussion 188–189, 190, 234n21 researchers: communities of 140, 189; practical involvement of 134–135; social conditions of 173; wagers and 35 research methods 25, 26, 28, 30; constitutive explanations and 105; see also methodology research programmes 15, 56, 58 Reus-Smit, Christian 203 Richardson, Lewis 205 Ringer, Fritz 148 rootedness 169 Rorty, Richard 128 Rosenau, James Ruby, Kevin 190, 219n4 Rule, James 234n21 rules 127, 128–135; of experience 148–149; of inference 18; relativism and 138; of research communities 140; of scientific methodology 194 Sagan, Carl 1–3, 195; invisible dragon and 78–81 Schwartz-Shea, Peri 204 science 9, 17–18, 30; of actuality 20–21, 147; as trump card 3, 19, 189, 191; see also definitions of science Index 267 scientific acceptability 43 Scientific Man vs Power Politics (Morgenthau) scientific ontology 28–32, 103–104, 233n16; mind–world monism and 114; Wendt and 28, 74; see also philosophical ontology scientific realism 76, 92, 151; see also critical realism Searle, John 42, 133–134, 140 “second great debate” in IR 3–9 self-awareness 92, 159, 168 sensibility 49–50, 160 sensory experience 27, 48, 220n15; Descartes and 45; empiricism and 60; Kant and 60, 216n11; mind–world gap and 31; phenomenalism and 62–63; see also experience Shotter, John 161 Singer, J David 6, 53, 213n4 skepticism 123 Smith, Steve 8–9, 21, 28–29, 42–43, 105 social action 33–34, 167, 204 social change 200, 201 social construction 31, 123–124, 161 Social Construction of Reality, The (Berger and Luckmann) 174 social locations 186 social objects 62, 89, 97–98 social structure 89–90, 90–91, 112, 139, 159 sociology, global 185 spirit 163–164, 166–167, 230n9 “Standard Model” of particles 82 states 89–90, 103, 112 structural realism 58, 151 Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The (Kuhn) 13, 217n14 subjective consciousness 92–93 subjective validity 191 subjectivism 115–116, 216n8; intersubjectivity and 128–135; relativism and 127 subjects 166 substantive concepts 20, 30, 112, 193 success of science 10 Suganami, Hidemi 205 surveys of work 32–33 synthesis of methodologies 172, 209 systematic empirical analysis 21 systematic inquiry 24 systematicity 193–196, 211–212 systematic variation 100 systems theory 52–53 Tarrow, Sidney 153 temporality 159–160 tensions, unresolved 199–200 terms 94, 96; consistent use of 118; theoretical 79–80, 84, 86; translation of 138; see also lexicon of IR; vocabulary Tetlock, Philip 101 theoretical terms 79–80; critical realism and 84; referential continuity of 86; see also lexicon of IR; vocabulary Theory of International Politics (Waltz) 112 “third debate” in IR 72–73 Tilly, Charles 153, 228n51 Time, Narrative, and History (Carr) 61 Todorov, Tzvetan 179 Toulmin, Stephen xii Towns, Ann 185 traditionalists 5, transcendental arguments 102–104, 121, 151, 167, 198; abduction and 102, 109; wagers and 35; see also laboratory experimentation transfactualism 36–37, 38, 215n16; abduction and 81–88, 88–92; common sense realism and 84; critical realism and 74–75, 76, 77–92; mind–world monism and: see reflexivity; monism and 223n2; vs phenomenalism 38, 197; Sagan’s invisible dragon and 78–81; truth and 141; undetectables and 88–92; see also experience; phenomenalism; reflexivity; sensory experience; unobservables transfactual monism see reflexivity translation 210 true-false criteria 125 truth 117, 123–124, 141 Turner, Derek 85, 86 Twenty Years Crisis, The (Carr) 187 typologies see ideal-typification understanding 10, 158; explaining and 8–9, 21, 29–30, 105, 211 undetectables 88–92, 104, 106 undetectable unobservables 85–92 unity 171–172 268 Index universality 120, 161–162, 190 universal laws 81 unobservables 76, 77–88, 110; in-principle 80; Sagan’s invisible dragon and 78–81; undetectables and 85–92 unobserved observables 88 Uranus 82–83 validity of work 22 value-commitments 22, 145–146, 178 value-ideas 191 van Fraassen, Bas 61, 80, 196, 217n20, 233n8 Vasquez, John 58, 113 Verba, Sidney 2, 7–8, 27, 36, 194; causality and 66–68 verifiability 11–13, 14, 50–51, 53, 57; see also falsifiability/falsification Vienna Circle 50–51, 65, 216n13; see also logical positivism vocabulary 152, 160, 207; conceptual 140–141; frameworks and 137–138; of neopositivists 218n29; as nonneutral 190; Quine on 144; see also lexicon of IR wagers 34–35, 214n10; core 32–40; mind–world dualism/mind–world monism 35–37; in philosophical ontology 34–35, 196–201; transfactualism/ phenomenalism and 36–37 Waltz, Kenneth N 112–114, 222n36; analyticism and 142, 153; international system and 149–151; monism and 223n1; neopositivism and 113–114, 205; reductionism and 213n4 war 102; Hobbes on 98–99 warrants 168–169; epistemic 178–179, 181, 183 weapons 102 Weber, Max 226n33, 226n35; analyticism and 142–143, 144; causation and 147–149; class and 169; definition of science and 20–22, 24, 193; goals of science and 20–22; ideal-typification and 37, 114, 145, 153; neo-Kantian thinkers and 162; on objective/subjective validity 191; translations of 226n36 weight 91–92 Wendt, Alexander 72–74, 84, 97; constitutive explanations and 104, 105–107; constructivism and 72, 201; on electrons 87; idealism/subjectivism and 115–116; ontological assumptions of 27, 73–74; reflexivity and 182; scientific ontology and 28, 74; unobservables and 89–90; Wight on 214n1 Whewell, William 161 Wight, Colin 18–19, 32, 75, 84, 194, 221n27; constitutive questions and 106–107; as mind-world dualist 36; ontology and 19, 26–28; referenceindependence and 94; on Wendt 214n1 Winch, Peter 139 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 11–12, 131–132; Onuf on 224n14; relativism and 136–137 workers 166 world, monists’ definition of 114 world-independent mind: Cartesian anxiety and 46, 48; logical positivism and 55; phenomenalism and 59, 66; see also mind-independence; mind-independent world worldy knowledge 193–196, 211–212, 232n4 Yanow, Dvora 204 Zeeman effect 85