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176 children: Europe infant mortality rate did not make such losses any less sad: Expressions of loss and regret are found in many medieval texts, such as the Middle English poem Pearl, in which a dreamer mourns the death of a little girl not yet two years old Baptism was the first sacrament that a medieval child was expected to receive, and it was considered vital in terms of salvation Children were regarded as innocent, yet their souls first had to be cleansed from original sin through baptism For this reason, it was officially forbidden to bury unbaptized children in hallowed ground The earlier theological stance that death without baptism meant eternal damnation gave way to the idea that the souls of unbaptized children would be consigned to the limbus puerorum, which was a kinder fate than hell but which did not offer any hope of ever attaining heaven To prevent the perdition of an immortal soul, some medieval preachers’ handbooks include instructions for midwives on how to baptize an unborn child in extremis without the help of a priest Baptism of noble children could result in lavish celebrations and exchanges of gifts, with godparents being carefully chosen as sponsors for the child However, such feasts might be abandoned or curtailed in favor of a hasty baptism if the baby proved to be weak or unlikely to survive long In a ceremony known as churching, mothers were ritually received back into the church after giving birth In continental Europe bishops bestowed the sacrament of confirmation on older children; in England, however, it was not unusual for very young children to receive confirmation, as is illustrated in many medieval depictions of the seven sacraments Child care was regarded as a woman’s domain Babies were breast-fed, and the Madonna suckling the infant Christ (known as the Virgo lactans) became an increasingly popular image in medieval art However, aristocratic and royal mothers tended to employ wet nurses, who were carefully chosen for the quality of their milk and for their moral behavior In Italy it was customary to send newborn babies away to be nursed in the country, though wealthier families preferred live-in wet nurses Rich households usually had designated nurseries, often with their own staff High-born babies might even be attended by their own rockers to rock their cradles, and extant lullabies prove that there were special songs for babies Many examples in art attest to the existence of baby walkers to help a toddler in learning to walk Games and play were also important Depictions in art, literary texts, documentary evidence, and archaeological finds all prove that medieval children had a wide variety of toys to play with, ranging from simple objects made of wood or clay to more expensive toy castles and swords for young princes Medieval children were also distinguished by the clothes they wore Few medieval items of clothing survive, yet there is evidence that children’s dress was adapted to suit their needs, in terms of both material and style An example is the 1494 portrait of the 26-month-old dauphin Charles Orland (1492– 95), who is shown wearing a white shift with a bib and a thick cap over his white coif to help prevent head injuries in case of a fall The exception was the type of court costume represented in early Renaissance depictions of high-born children, such as Hans Holbein’s (ca 1497–1543) portrait of Edward, the infant son of Henry VIII (r 1509–47), in his Tudor cap and gold-trimmed shift and robe Such dress was obviously intended for formal occasions and not for everyday wear Medieval education was different for girls and boys High-born sons often received private education, while other boys might be sent to school before receiving further training in their future professions, either in apprenticeships or at university Discipline was strict, and medieval schoolmasters are traditionally depicted with a birch Children learned their letters initially with the help of a hornbook, a tablet onto which the alphabet was copied Literacy became increasingly important for girls as well, though they were usually taught at home The image of Saint Anne teaching the young Virgin Mary to read became a popular theme in art and thus an example to medieval mothers Monasteries and nunneries also often derived an income from educating pupils Although young children were usually involved in the world of adult life and work, they were not treated as adults In the countryside peasant children were gradually introduced into an active working role, usually with tasks to match their age and experience, such as running errands or tending livestock Inevitably, accidents did happen, but authorities were apt to reprimand irresponsible parents who failed to recognize the limitations of young children or to exercise due care and attention Families usually determined their children’s future An extreme example was the earlier practice of child oblation, through which parents could donate young children to the church and which was regarded as binding; the custom was questioned in the 12th century and was finally abandoned Apprenticeships were contracts that parents or families entered into on behalf of children in their care; these contracts were strictly regulated by the guilds and stipulated the duration of the apprenticeship as well as the conditions and fees Many sons followed their fathers’ careers, and many medieval artists and artisans were trained by their fathers or continued their fathers’ workshops, as in the case of the Louvain painter Dirck Bouts (ca 1400–75) Marriage was another aspect over which children themselves had little control They could be promised in marriage at a very early age, though the church did not regard such marriages as legally binding until both parties had reached
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