National as Political Paranoia in Burma As Essay on the Historical Practice of Power Tai Lieu Chat Luong Administrator 200093e4coverv05b jpg NATIONALISM AS POLITICAL PARANOIA IN BURMA Nordic Institute[.]
Tai Lieu Chat Luong NATIONALISM AS POLITICAL PARANOIA IN BURMA Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Recent NIAS Reports 28 Christopher E Goscha: Vietnam or Indochina? Contesting Concepts of Space in Vietnamese Nationalism, 1887-1954 29 Alain Lefebvre: Islam, Human Rights and Child Labour in Pakistan 30 Mytte Fentz: Natural Resources and Cosmology in Changing Kalasha Society 31 BØrge Bakken (ed.): Migration in China 32 Donald B Wagner: Traditional Chinese Iron Industry and Its Modern Fate 33 Elisabeth Ozdalga: The Veiling Issue, Official Secularism and Popular Islam in Modern Turkey 34 Sven Cederroth: Basket Case or Poverty Alleviation ? 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no 11) Nationalism - Burma 2.Buddhism - Burma 3.Burma - Ethnic relations 4.Burma - Politics and government I.Title 320.9'591 ISBN 0-203-63979-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-67899-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 07007 0980 (Hbk) ISBN 07007 0981 (Pbk) ISSN 1398-313x CONTENTS Preface to the 1993 Edition vii Preface to the 1999 Edition ix Acknowledgements xii Abbreviations xiv Introduction 1 The Colonial Club: ‘Natives Not Admitted!’ The Violent Pacification’ of Burma Buddhist Cosmology and Political Power 15 The Colonisation of Burmese Identity 21 Buddhism, Xenophobia and Rebellion in the 1930s 33 Two Versions of Nationalism: Union State or Ethnicism 43 Buddhism and Military Power: Two Different Strategies —Two Different Thakins 55 Ne Win’s Club 69 Aung San Suu Kyi’s Strategy 75 10 Nationalism as the Practice of Power 81 11 The Rules of the Myanmar Club since 1993 87 12 Buddhism and the Religious Divide among the Karen 89 13 U Thuzana and Vegan Buddhism 99 14 Buddhism, Prophecies and Rebellion 103 15 Autocracy and Nationalism 117 vi 16 Historicism, Historical Memory and Power 127 17 A Final Word—But No Conclusion 135 Epilogue 143 Appendix 1: Theoretical Concepts 149 Appendix 2: Karen Organisations 155 Glossary 157 Bibliography 161 Index 171 MAPS Burma xv Exduded Area 1946 Karen and Mon States Myit Szone 28 60 92 PREFACE TO THE 1993 EDITION This essay is an elaborated version of a paper presented at a seminar in honour of Nobel Prize winner Daw Aung San Suu Kyi at Lund University, Sweden, on December 1991 It is part of a research project aiming at an identification and analysis of those historical processes in Burma which have made ethnic opposition escalate into an unending nationalistic struggle—a struggle that has reduced politics in Burma to extreme violence ***** As preparation for anthropological fieldwork in Thailand from 1970 to 1972 I spent two months in intensive learning of the Pwo Karen language at the Baptist mission in Sangkhlaburi near the Burmese border I had three teachers One was Ms Emily Ballard, a long-time missionary in Burma and a brilliant linguist The other two were a wellknown Christian Karen politician Saw Tha Din and his wife They came to Thailand as refugees and worked for the mission After the sessions with the Pwo Karen spelling book and grammar, Saw Tha Din explained Karen nationalism during the colonial era and after independence He gave a vivid and strong impression of how potent the mixture of ethnic self-consciousness, religious affection and nationalism can be in a colonial situation The endeavours of the Karen National Union, a visit to one of the Burman guerrilla camps belonging to forces loyal to U Nu and under the command of Bo Yan Naing (one of the famous thirty comrades), and a meeting with Mon leader Nai Shwe Kyin came to mind whilst I was working at the India Office Library and Records in London (now called the Oriental and India Office Collections) in May 1988 Amnesty International had just published a report on Burma, documenting the torture and killing of Karen civilians, and Rangoon was about to explode in anger and repression Whilst reading secret reports on religious and ethnic rebellions in the middle of the last century, it struck viii me how the conflict and the violence in Burma have been ingrained in social relations and their cultural expression during the last two centuries History in itself cannot explain the violence of today, but the tragic developments since 1988 have made the need for an analysis of the roots of Burmese nationalism even more urgent This essay is, however, a preliminary contribution based primarily on the works by renowned scholars on Burma and its focus is more on theoretical explanation than on a detailed historical account Except for information collected during my stay in Thailand and a short visit to Burma in 1972, I have relied on written sources and documents, mainly in English Hopefully, I have not misappropriated the insights of the valuable works on Burma to which I am referring I am grateful to NIAS for inviting me as a guest researcher in May 1992—it was a very stimulating visit I am indebted to the India Office Library and Records, London, and especially to dr Andrew Griffin for his kind and valuable assistance in locating important documents The Department of East Asian Languages at the University of Lund inspired me to continue this work by the very timely celebration of a genuine non-violent nationalist (Aung San Suu Kyi) Last but not least, I must express my thanks to the Research Foundation at Aarhus University, Denmark, for financially supporting the English-language editing of this manuscript May peace soon strike the peacock in Burma! PREFACE TO THE 1999 EDITION Since the initial publication of this book, I have been pleasantly surprised by the interest and the positive assessments that it has received, although it was—and remains—a brief and incomplete sketch of Burma’s history and a preliminary analysis of nationalism I was even more surprised and delighted when the Journal of Asian Studies (vol 5, no 3, 1994) published a review of the book by Professor James F Guyot He rightly concludes that my analysis of nationalism does not come through clearly in the text Nationalism and theories of nationalism are indeed difficult to handle in a brief presentation, especially when the history concerned is as complex as Burma’s I have added six new chapters in an attempt to take the analysis one step further But it is clear, as I stated in the first edition, that my view is one from afar Although I have recently collected additional information along the Thai-Burmese border and have had intensive discussions with Burmese people living in Europe as well as with colleagues, this book is not an attempt to write a history of modern Myanmar/Burma or to assess the complexity of the changes since 1988 It is an analysis of nationalism, ethnicity and power in the history of Burma from an anthropological perspective A Burmese friend, Brenda Pe Maung Tin (Daw Tin Tin Myaing), has kindly drawn my attention to the term kala (‘South Asian’, ‘Indian’) which I have used to mean ‘foreigner’ or ‘Westerner’ In the beginning of the colonial period the term was used for everyone who came from India, including the British This usage is found in English literature written during and immediately after the colonial period and has a highly problematic connotation in the modern context Today kala refers to a person of South Asian ethnic origin But it was also used as a derogatory term for Aung San Suu Kyi in an article in the official New Light of Myanmar entitled ‘Feeling Prickly Heat, Instead of Pleasant Cool’: Pretty little 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The New Yorker, 12 August 1996 (A Reporter at Large) Newspapers Bangkok Post, 13 October 1985; 1, & May 1995; 15 October 1996; 22 January 1996; January 1998 Christian Science Monitor, November 1996 Los Angeles Times,25 November 1996 The Nation, 16 December (‘People of the Opiate’) 1996; 13 April 1997; 24 January 1997 New Light of Myanmar, May and June 1996; 28 March 1997; June 1997, 13 October 1998 (Internet ed., http://www Myanmar.com/ NLM/) 170 INDEX Agati 2, 156 Ahimsa 13, 74, 156 Ana (power) 110, 156 Anderson, Benedict 20, 137 Anti-Fascist Peoples Freedom League (AFPFL) 48, 52, 57, 58 Ariya Metteya (Ariya) See also bodhisatta 18, 56, 102, 103, 104, 107, 156 Armed forces See Tatmadaw ASEAN 124, 144 Aung San 38, 41, 42, 44, 49, 50–53, 72, 73 on Buddhism 42 on nation, nationalism 44 Aung San Suu Kyi 70, 78, 118, 119, 120, 124, 143, 145, 146 on Buddhism xv, 74, 90, 138 on ethnicity 73, 114 on human rights 74–75 on nationalism 2, 7, 39, 76, 133– 135 Aung-Thwin, Michael 78 Avirodha 75 See also Ariya Metteya 18, 56, 90, 94, 99–101, 109, 111, 157 Bo Mya 92, 93, 96, 144 Boung kho 102, 103, 104–105, 110, 157 Buddhism, 13–19, 21, 54, 56, 57 in the 1947 Constitution 57 and nationalism 42, 137 and SLORC 88–90 and socialism 53, 55, 61 Buddhist concepts See agati, ahimsa, avirodha, dana, kamma, karuna, kutho, metta, sangha, sila Buddhist World Council 56 Burma Independence Army (BIA) 44, 46, 128 Burman/Burmese (Bama) 156 Burman names 157 Burmanisation 112–113 Burma Rifles 44, 53 Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) 53, 55, 61–62 Cakkavatti, 9, 17, 18, 35, 46, 63, 94, 102, 108, 111, 157 Chatterjee, Partha 133 Chettyar, moneylender 28, 34, 37, 157 Chin in 113 Chinese 129 Christianity 21–23, 33, 137, Club, colonial, 2, 3, 9, 31, 71 Ba Maw 38, 47 Bama (Burman), 156 Baptists See also missionaries and Karen vi, 21–22, 58, 103 Bodhisatta 171 172 INDEX Myanmar 85–87 Ne Win’s 68–70 Colonialism See plural society Colonisation See also pacification 23, 25–26, 30 ‘Colonizing consciousness’ 75 Commanroff, Jean & John L 77 Communist Party 53 Communist rebellion 52 Corporate state and society 41 Cosmology, Buddhist 10, 11, 15, 18, 19, 21, 36, 102–105, 149 Cultural classification 77 essentialism 71, 81, 85, 123, 130, 133, 145 Dacoit 10 Dana 18, 157 Defense Services Institute (DSI) 128 Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA) 92–97, 110, 111, 143–144 Democratic Karen Buddhist Organisation (DKBO) 92–97, 99, 100 Dhamma, 9, 13–15, 16, 19, 35, 157 Dhammaraja 16, 17, 35, 63, 75, 157 Dobama Asiayone ‘We, the Burmans Association’ 38–40, 157 Economy 121–124, 144 Ethnicity, 112, 152 and politics 44, 47, 48, 50, 58, 72, 73, 110, 112–113, 131, 132, 135 Ethnicism 50, 133, 152–153 Eurasians 28 Europeans 29–30 Excluded areas 25, 27 Foucault, Michel 83 Force-136 (SOE) 44, 109 Furnivall, J.S 29, 129–130 Galon 35, 36, 157 General Council of Buddhist Associations (GCBA) 34, 35, 37 Guyot, James viii, 128 Hluttaw, (king’s council) 11, 16, 157 Hpòn, (‘glory’) 15, 16, 63, 99, 110, 157 Hasya San, rebellion 34–38 Htì, (pagoda final) 15, 63, 89, 94, 102, 104, 105, 110, 157 Identity 75, 76, 77, 113, 136–137, 150 cultural 21, 22, 125, 126, 135 ethnic 20, 110 Karen 111 national 25, 28, 133 Indians See also chettyar 26, 28, 29–30, 63 Indra (Thagya Mìn) 17, 102 Japanese occupation 40–41, 44–48 Kachin 25, 26, 52, 58, 113 Kala viii, 11–12, 22, 30, 39, 89, 107, 158 Kamma (karma) 16, 17, 19, 57, 70, 74, 110, 158 Kapferer, Bruce 82 Karen Buddhist 90, 92–97, 97, 110 Christian 10, 23–24, 28, 38, 44– 48, 52, 72, 79, 90–97, 106 organisations 154–155 prophet 103 Pwo 46, 102 rebellion (1856) 24, 102 refugees 143 Sgaw 46, 102 uprising (1949) 51 Karen National Association, KNA 25, 155 Karen National Liberation Army, KNLA 90–96, 143 NATIONALISM AS POLITICAL PARANOIA IN BURMA 173 Karen National Union, KNU 48, 49, 72, 90–97, 100, 109, 144, 155 KNU border trade and tax 64, 94 Karuna 90, 158 Kayah (Karenni) 25, 27, 48, 49, 113 Khin Nyunt 88, 89, 120, 123, 141, 146 Kipling, Ruyard 10–11 Kuomintang 51 Kutho (merit) 15, 110, 158 Mandalay 9, 57, 62, 74, 88, 89 Manerplaw 91, 93–95 Maran La Raw 113 Maung Maung Gyi 65–66, 70 Marxism 53 Memory, historical/social 110, 111– 112, 113, 126–131, 135–136, 140, 145, 153 Metta 90, 158 Mindon, King 100, 102 Mèn laùng 17, 18, 24, 75, 100, 158 Burman 35 Karen 103, 105–109, 111 Mon 108 Missionaries 21–23, 58, 102, 103, 106 Models 78, 79, 81, 111, 126, 147 autocratic 18–19, 62, 68, 133, 136 concept of corporate state 60–62, 83, 136 nationalistic 53, 55, 77 Mon 105 Monks 9, 15, 23, 33, 56, 57, 62, 70, 88, 90, 93, 97 Monarchy 13–19 Muslims 28, 57, 89 Myaing Gyi Ngu 90, 97, 99 Myaung Mya 46 Myit Szone 91, 93 Nat (spirits) 17, 57, 158 National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma 131 National League for Democracy (NLD) 70, 87, 89, 119, 143, 145– 146 Nationalism, 85, 115, 125, 136–137, 150, 152, 154 Burman 36, 38–41, 72–73, 76–81, 123, 129–131, 133, 146 concept of See Models Karen 25, 79, 97 rhetoric, ix–x, 2, 117 religion 82, 97 SLORC 117, 120, 126–131, 133– 137 New Light of Myanmar 89, 95, 118, 119, 143, 144 Ne Win 2, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58–70, 71, 74, 143 Nu, U 39, 52, 54, 55, 56–58, 63 Office of Strategic Studies 144 Ontology 150 Ontological 15, 17, 21, 61–62 Orwell, George xv, 3–5, 28, 68, 97, 140 Ottama, U 33 Pacification, British 8–12 Pagoda 8, 17, 24, 63, 88, 93, 94, 102, 104, 108, Panglong Agreement 48–49, 50, 114 Papun 102, 105, 108, 109 Paranoia (political) 50, 73, 82–83, 137, 146 Patron-client relations 20, 55, 64, 127–128, 141 Peoples Volunteer Organisation (PVO) 52–53 Plural Society 29, 77 Power 2, 64, 82–83, 110, 120, 128, 137, 139, 140, 149 concept 149 royal 16 symbolic 70, 90, 99, 105, 110, 117, 129, 149 174 INDEX Pye, Lucien 66 Race 39, 70–72, 85, 112 Rebellion 9, 75 See also Hsaya San ; Karen Sangha 9, 13, 15, 54, 56, 57, 62, 89, 94, 105, 158 Salween 26, 90, 93, 102, 109 San C Po, Sir 46, Saw Charles 93–94 Saw Ba U Gyi 49, 96 Sawbwa, 158 Kayah 106 Shan 26 Saw Po Chit 44–44 Saw Tha Din vi, xi, 52 154 Saw, U 51 Seagrim, Major 45, 155 Setkya mìn See Cakkavatti Shan, State 26, 27, 49 Shew Dagon Pagoda Shwegyin sect 62, 100, 158 Sila 18, 104, 158 Smith, A.D 76 State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) 85, 87, 95–97, 112, 113, 115, 117–121, 123–125 National Convention 119–120 Social/historical memory 126– 131, 135 State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) 141, 145 Stevenson, H.N.C 49 Strategy, concept 149 Suffering (social) 139 Tatmadaw, Armed Forces 12, 54, 74, 127, 135, 136, 137, 143–144, 158 and nationalism 117, 119, 121 and social memory 129 Thakin 38–40, 54, 158 Than Shwe, 126, 129 Thamanya, Hsayadaw 90, 97 Thibaw, King Tin Maung Maung Than 128 Tho Mèh Pha 46 Thu Mwe Htar 93 Thuzana, U 90, 93–95, 97–100, 109, 110–111 Union Solidarity Development Association (USDA) 85, 117, 126– 128, 145 six objectives of 118 Vegan 97, 99 Vegetarian 90 Violence xv, 12, 23, 66, 75, 83, 117, 118, 130–131, 139 Wunthanu Athin, (nationalist association) 34, 159 Xenophobia 21, 31, 50, 71, 82, 83, 118, 123, 124, 129 Yathe 103–105, 110, 111, 159 Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) 31, 35 Yunzalin 90, 102, 106