OPTOELECTRONICS - MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES Edited by Padmanabhan Predeep Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques Edited by Padmanabhan Predeep Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Mirna Cvijic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright Triff, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published September, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques, Edited by Padmanabhan Predeep p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-276-0 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Inorganic Optoelectronic Materials 1 Chapter 1 Optoelectronic Properties of Amorphous Silicon the Role of Hydrogen: from Experiment to Modeling 3 Franco Gaspari Chapter 2 Silicon–Rich Silicon Oxide Thin Films Fabricated by Electro-Chemical Method 27 Pham Van Hoi, Do Thuy Chi, Bui Huy and Nguyen Thuy Van Chapter 3 Silicon Oxide (SiO x , 0<x<2): a Challenging Material for Optoelectronics 55 Nicolae Tomozeiu Chapter 4 Gallium Nitride: An Overview of Structural Defects 99 Fong Kwong Yam, Li Li Low, Sue Ann Oh, and Zainuriah Hassan Chapter 5 Cuprous Oxide (Cu 2 O): A Unique System Hosting Various Excitonic Matter and Exhibiting Large Third-Order Nonlinear Optical Responses 137 Joon I. Jang Chapter 6 Optoelectronic Properties of ZnSe, ITO, TiO 2 and ZnO Thin Films 165 S. Venkatachalam, H. Nanjo, K. Kawasaki, H. Hayashi, T. Ebina and D. Mangalaraj Part 2 Polymer Optoelectronic Materials 185 Chapter 7 Side-Chain Multifunctional Photoresponsive Polymeric Materials 187 Luigi Angiolini, Tiziana Benelli, Loris Giorgini, Attilio Golemme, Elisabetta Salatelli and Roberto Termine VI Contents Chapter 8 Ladder Polysiloxanes for Optoelectronic Applications 211 Zhongjie Ren, Shouke Yan and Rongben Zhang Chapter 9 Synthesis of Aromatic-Ring-Layered Polymers 235 Yasuhiro Morisaki and Yoshiki Chujo Chapter 10 Nanomorphologies in Conjugated Polymer Solutions and Films for Application in Optoelectronics, Resolved by Multiscale Computation 261 Cheng K. Lee and Chi C. Hua Part 3 Techniques and Characterization 285 Chapter 11 Optoelectronic Techniques for Surface Characterization of Fabrics 287 Michel Tourlonias, Marie-Ange Bueno and Laurent Bigué Chapter 12 Optoelectronic Circuits for Control of Lightwaves and Microwaves 313 Takahide Sakamoto Chapter 13 An Analytical Solution for Inhomogeneous Strain Fields Within Wurtzite GaN Cylinders Under Compression Test 337 X. X. Wei Chapter 14 Application of Quaternary AlInGaN- Based Alloys for Light Emission Devices 355 Sara C. P. Rodrigues, Guilherme M. Sipahi, Luísa Scolfaro and Eronides F. da Silva Jr. Chapter 15 Air Exposure Improvement of Optical Properties of Hydrogenated Nanostructured Silicon Thin Films for Optoelectronic Application 375 Atif Mossad Ali Chapter 16 Fabrication and Characterization of As Doped p-Type ZnO Films Grown by Magnetron Sputtering 393 J.C. Fan, C.C. Ling and Z. Xie Chapter 17 Light Intensity Fluctuations and Blueshift 421 Moon Kyu Choi Chapter 18 Self-Similarity in Semiconductors: Electronic and Optical Properties 435 L. M. Gaggero-Sager, E. Pujals, D. S. Díaz-Guerrero and J. Escorcia-García Contents VII Chapter 19 Long-Term Convergence of Bulk- and Nano-Crystal Properties 459 Sergei L. Pyshkin and John Ballato Chapter 20 Micro-Raman Studies of Li Doped and Undoped ZnO Needle Crystals 477 R. Jothilakshmi To my father; but for his unrelenting efforts I would not have made it to this day. Preface Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques is the first part of an edited anthology on the multifaceted areas of optoelectronics contributed by a selected group of authors including promising novices to experts in the field, where are discussed related materials and techniques. Photonics and optoelectronics are making an impact multiple times the semiconductor revolution made on the quality of our life. In telecommunication, entertainment devices, computational techniques, clean energy harvesting, medical instrumentation, materials and device characterization and scores of other areas of R&D the science of optics and electronics get coupled by fine technology advances to make incredibly large strides. The technology of light has advanced to a stage where disciplines sans boundaries are finding it indispensable. In this context this book would be of importance to researchers from materials scientists to device designers and fabricators. Photonics is to optics like electronics is to electricity. Photonics sculpts light like a sculptor does with granite. Light is beings squeezed, cut into the pieces, reconstructed back and the like. Currently optics is undergoing revolutionary changes and photonics is going to be the next centuries’ technology. Globally, countries are vying with each other in formulating their technology initiatives so as to ensure that they should not miss the “Photonics Bus” as many of them missed the semiconductor revolution in the last century. Data transfer and communication technology are going to unimaginable heights by the idea of photonic crystals - the idea optical scientists copied from mother nature’s work in nanotechnology in blooming beautiful colors and patterns on objects of desire like butterfly wings and peacock feathers With the emergence of photonics and laser technology, optoelectronics seems to be losing its identity and is often mixed up with photonics. Photonics draws from and contributes to several other fields, such as quantum electronics and modern optics. In this era of great mix up of disciplines and multidisciplinary research, it is not surprising that such mix of closely connected players like electrons and photons refuses to be confined to narrow boundaries of sub disciplines. Naturally the articles in this anthology also have their boundaries diffused over the diverse optical phenomena of optoelectronics and photonics. Readers are advised to bear this in mind when looking for titles of this book. X Preface I am proud to present this collection of carefully selected peer reviewed high quality articles on various optoelectronic and photonic materials and techniques and would like to thank to the authors for their wonderful efforts. Stake holders of the ongoing optoelectronic and photonics revolution such as researchers, academics and scientists are sure to find this collection of essays enormously useful. July 2011 P. Predeep Professor Laboratory for Unconventional Electronics & Photonics Department of Physics National Institute of Technology Calicut India [...]... 10 15 cm-3s -1 They obtained for the volume-averaged pair generation rate the number: R = ΦN p /d = 6 x 10 20 cm −3s 1 (10 ) which is comparable to that of light degradation at the smaller intensities for which smaller DB creation rates and sub-linear (Ndb ∝ t1/3) kinetics are observed 16 Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques By applying Yelon’s treatment to e-h pairs generated by beta particles... damage (Street et al., 19 79; Stutzmann, 19 91) Optoelectronic Properties of Amorphous Silicon the Role of Hydrogen: From Experiment to Modeling 15 On the other hand, e-h pairs recombination has also been associated with the creation of DBs (Yelon et al., 2000) and with the mechanism of hydrogen diffusion in a-Si:H (Branz et al., 19 93, 19 99; Cheong et al., 2000; Santos et al., 19 91, 19 92) The relative impact... tritium (λ = 1. 78 x 10 -9 s -1) , Eavg is the average energy of a beta particle (5.7 keV) and ε is the energy needed to produce an electron-hole pair (4.3 eV); nTv is the volume density of atomic tritium Assuming nTv~5 at.%, as confirmed by IR measurements for standard tritiated samples used in the investigation (Gaspari et al., 2000; Sidhu at al., 19 99), we obtain: G = 5.9 x 10 15 cm −3s 1 (9) The effects... its isotopes, tritium, and use the effects of the radioactive decay process of tritium as a means to follow the dynamics of defect creation and annealing, and their impact on the opto-electronic properties (Costea et al., 2000; Gaspari et al., 2000; Kherani et al., 2008; Kosteski et al., 2000, 2003, 2005; Zukotynski et al., 2002) 14 Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques 4 .1 Dangling bond formation... that both optical and electronic properties of amorphous silicon, such as refractive index, optical gap, absorption coefficient, electron and hole 4 Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques mobility, etc., are strongly dependent on hydrogen content, in terms of both hydrogen concentration and hydrogen dynamics (diffusion) under various conditions - see, for instance, (Searle, 19 98) and references therein... the dependence of the optical gap and other optical parameters, like absorption coefficient and refractive index, on CH Earlier studies can be found in the references in (Searle, 19 98) and (Street, 19 91) In summary, it has been shown that the optical band-gap of a-Si:H tends to increase with hydrogen content; see also, for instance, (Daouahi et al., 20 01; Gaspari et al, 19 93) Optoelectronic Properties... properties (energy gap, Fermi level, etc.) and in the dynamics of creation and annealing of defects For instance, early infrared spectroscopy (Jeffrey et al 19 79; Knights & Lujan, 19 79; Zanzucchi et al., 19 77), primarily of evaporated and sputtered a-Si:H, associated polyhydride bonding with poor film properties, but Street & Tsai (19 88) and Kato & Aoki (19 85) showed that that was not the case A model... that that was not the case A model predicting the various modes of vibration for silicon and hydrogen atoms in a-Si:H was developed by Lucovski et al (19 89) Recently, the correct interpretation of the various modes, in particular the stretching modes between 19 50 and 215 0 cm -1, has been questioned (Smets & van de Sanden, 2007); however the frequency assignments by Lucovski still provide an excellent... understanding and prediction of the properties of a-S:H, it is crucial that the dependence of physical properties on preparation conditions be fully examined This requires the development of experimental and predictive tools applicable to size scales ranging from the atomic to the macroscopic levels Both Searle (19 98) and Street (19 91) provide an exhaustive review of the structural, optical and electronic... hydrogen bonding and content For example, dark conductivity in a-Si:H can be described by two main processes The first is the standard extended states conduction process, described by the relation (Mott, 19 83) E ⎞ σ=σ 0 exp ⎛ − A ⎜ k BT ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ (2) where σ and σ0 are the electrical conductivity and a prefactor, respectively, and EA, kB and T are the activation energy, the Boltzmann constant and the temperature, . Solutions and Films for Application in Optoelectronics, Resolved by Multiscale Computation 2 61 Cheng K. Lee and Chi C. Hua Part 3 Techniques and Characterization 285 Chapter 11 Optoelectronic Techniques. OPTOELECTRONICS - MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES Edited by Padmanabhan Predeep Optoelectronics - Materials and Techniques Edited by Padmanabhan. of ZnSe, ITO, TiO 2 and ZnO Thin Films 16 5 S. Venkatachalam, H. Nanjo, K. Kawasaki, H. Hayashi, T. Ebina and D. Mangalaraj Part 2 Polymer Optoelectronic Materials 18 5 Chapter 7 Side-Chain