The translation strategies used by english students at phu xuan university to deal with unfamiliar culture based words

TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Pages STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .4 LIST OF CHARTS .4 LIST OF FIGURES ABSTRACT Chapter INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the research 1.2 Rationale of the study 1.3 Research aims 1.4 Research scope 1.5 Research significance 1.6 Structure of the thesis Chapter LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction .9 2.2 Translation theory 2.2.1 Definition of translation 2.2.2 Translation strategies 11 2.3 Translation and Culture 12 2.3.1 Definition of culture 12 2.3.2 Definition of culture-based words 14 2.3.3 The importance of culture in translation 15 2.4 Procedures of translating culture-based words 18 2.5 What are essential skills that any good translator should have? 21 2.6 Translation and Translator training in Vietnam 23 2.6.1 Translation situation in Vietnam 23 2.6.2 Translation training in Vietnam 26 2.7 Conclusion 31 Chapter METHODOLOG Y 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Research approach 33 3.3 Research method 33 3.3.1 The questionnaire 33 3.3.2 The interviews 34 3.4 Participants 34 3.5 Research site 35 3.6 Data analysis 35 3.7 Conclusion 36 Chapter FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 37 4.1 Introduction 37 4.2 Findings and discussion 37 4.2.1 The students‟ views towards translating culture-based words 37 4.2.2 The translation strategies used by English students to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words 50 4.3 Conclusion 72 Chapter CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 73 5.1 Summary of the findings 73 5.1.1 What are Vietnamese English major students‟ view towards translating culture-based words? 73 5.1.2 What are the strategies in dealing with culture-based words? 74 5.2 Recommendations 74 5.2.1 For teachers 74 5.2.2 For students 75 5.2.3 For Policy makers 78 5.2.4 For Future Researchers 79 REFERENCES 80 APPENDICES LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The culture‟s role in translation 37 Table 2: Frequency of translating culture-based words 39 Table 3: Frequency of having difficulty translating unfamiliar culture-based words 42 Table 4: the amount of knowledge of culture is taught in translation classes 65 LIST OF CHARTS Chart 1: Frequency of translating culture-based words inaccurately 45 Chart 2: The possible consequences due to inaccurate translation of culture based words 46 Chart 3: Translation strategies to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words 50 Chart 4: Essential skills that any good translator should have 59 Chart 5: The ways students to improve their cultural knowledge 68 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Cycle of Translation Program Design and Development (Gabr 2000:17) 28 ABSTRACT This thesis aims to investigate the English major students‟ views towards translating culture-based words and students‟ strategies in dealing with these words in their translation at Phu Xuan University The data were collected by means of questionnaires and in-depth interviews Forty questionnaires were delivered and returned In addition, ten interviews were conducted with 10 students and four interviews were conducted with four translation teachers The findings show that all students were well aware of the significance of culture in translation and used many different translation strategies in dealing with unfamiliar culture - based words However, they did not use the translation strategies effectively because they did not master the translation theory and did not pay attention to the readership of the translated work Based on the findings, it is suggested the translation teachers need to vary their teaching methods In addition, teachers also need to include a translation theory section in their course Also, it is essential that students need to translate much more documents laden with cultures more frequently and make great efforts to overcome language and culture barriers so that they can improve their translation ability in general and cultural knowledge in particular Chapter INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the research Since its inception, translation has not ceased to play its indispensable role of transferring messages across languages and cultural barriers (Adewuni, 2006) It is helpful to millions of people of different professions Thanks to translation, we have obtained considerable achievements in many fields such as science, technology, literature, arts, sports, etc which have been applied to our life Just imagine, if we had no translations, we would be isolated from the rest of the world and our country would be covered in the dark of ignorance We could hardly know Shakespeare, Gorky, Balzac, Karl Marx, V I Lenin and Louis Pasteur and we would not recognize the development of science and technology as well as many other marvelous things in the world Along with economic development, open-door policy, international trade, globalization, and the expansion of the mass media and technology, the needs of translation from English into Vietnamese and vice versa in Vietnam have significantly increased A great number of texts, documents, items of news need to be translated from English into Vietnamese and from Vietnamese into English However, training qualified translators at university is a matter of great concerns in Vietnam For example, as Đông (2007a) points out, students lack not only profound knowledge of linguistics including grammar, pragmatics but also of awareness of culture relevant to countries, people, lifestyle, and customs of two peoples Another serious challenge is that translators neither acquire abundant vocabulary nor know how to treat the different meanings of the same word in various contexts This is a prime matter of concern and draws much attention of professional translators, lecturers and educators at universities While translation work requires translator‟ a good command of language and wide knowledge of culture and civilization of both source language (SL) and target language (TL), at present, translator training at universities seemingly provides only linguistic theoretical knowledge for students (Hiệp &Hương 2007) In addition, most people think that if someone is proficient in a foreign language, s/he can work as a translator/ an interpreter without understanding all translation requirements It is quite a misconception Being fluent in a foreign language does not mean to become a translator/ an interpreter (Đông 2007a) Sharing the same idea, Hiệp & Hương (2007) point out that few people think after finishing a course, they can become translators because translation requires many skills and knowledge accumulated for many years Like other universities in Vietnam, Phu Xuan has difficulties in training translators From my experience in teaching there, I have found that in the translation class, students lack not only translation theory but also general knowledge of many subjects such as economy, culture, current affairs, society and education They are not well aware of the differences and similarities between two languages in terms of grammar, semantics and pragmatics In addition, they tend to use literal translation which sometimes sounds nonsense and has little communicative value and makes serious errors One of the difficulties students face is word collocation Word collocation consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment Another factor that challenges students is culture Students often have difficulties translating things, events, phenomena, concepts existing in the Anglo-American culture into Vietnamese culture 1.2 Rationale of the study As a translation teacher, I always wish to raise the teaching quality of my class, and improve the translation skills for my students I have learnt from experience that students are confused in translating culture - based words and texts from English to Vietnamese They often make many errors in the translated text due to lack of cultural awareness when working with the source text As culture - based words play an important part in translation, it is necessary to research on this matter to reflect the reality of translation strategies to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words Based on the findings of the research, some suggestions and implications need to be made as a reference source for better translation of cultural documents 1.3 Research aims This research project attempts to investigate the students‟ views towards translating unfamiliar culture-based words It also aims to find out what the translation strategies are used by English students at Phu Xuan University to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words The project particularly seeks to answer the following questions: How are students‟ views towards translating unfamiliar culture-based words? What are the translation strategies used by English students to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words? 1.4 Research scope Within limited time, resources, condition and the length of the thesis, the data for this project are collected at one university in Hue City and the findings might not be generalized to other contexts However, many aspects of the study are still likely to be applied to other Vietnamese contexts 1.5 Research significance As mentioned in research aims, the project is to provide information based on which suggestions can be offered with a view to improving students‟ translation ability Personally, after completion of this research work, I can develop my knowledge as well as teaching skill Hopefully, the suggestions can benefit teachers, trainers and colleagues interested in translation and translation teaching 1.6 Structure of the thesis This thesis consists of five chapters Chapter has presented a general overview of the study It states the background, the reasons, the aims, the scope and the organization of the study Chapter will offer an overview of fundamental and theoretical concepts relevant to the research Besides, the rationale of the study is included Chapter will provide detail description of the research design and methodology, participants, data collection and data analysis Chapter will describe the findings from questionnaires, interviews with students and teachers at Phu Xuan University Based on the findings through the questionnaires and information from the interviews, this chapter also discusses some issues relating to the reality of translation strategies to deal with culture-based words Chapter will summarize the results of the study At the same time, this chapter will focus on the implication of the findings and suggestions for further studies Chapter LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter first presents some definitions of translation, culture, culturebased words and the importance of culture in translation Secondly, procedures of translating culture laden words are explained and analyzed to provide a general understanding of translation strategies of culture-based words Thirdly, translation and translator training in Vietnam are discussed In the conclusion, the need for this study will be highlighted 2.2 Translation theory 2.2.1 Definition of translation Translation has been a subject which attracts much interest, passion and research of not only linguists, professional and amateur translators, and language teachers but also scientists and electronic engineers Every year, a great number of books and articles have been translated in many different fields More attention is paid to translation especially in the age of information explosion However, the definition of what is meant by translation is not easy It can be said that translation has been defined from different aspects by famous scholars such as Jakobson (1959), Nida (1964), Firth (1965), Wilss (1982), Hatim & Mason (1990), Bell (1991), Larson (1984), and Tittone… In Vietnam many researchers such as Cẩn (2007), Vân (1997), Dũng (2002), and Đông (2007)… are much interested in translation Whatever the difficulty in the translation process, procedures must aim at the content of the message and faithfulness to the meaning of the source language text being transferred to the target language text With such a view, Nida & Taber (1974) assert, “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida & Taber, 1974, p.12) According to Nida & Taber (1974), translation should not be stuck so closely to stylistic details that translating is hardly ever done This is considered a crucial point because there are always cultural differences between the source language (SL) and the target language (TL) and it would be difficult to preserve the style of the source language text It may occur in translation practice when a word in this language can be conveyed by a phrase or even a clause in another language Besides, Nida & Taber (1974) lays a great emphasis on readers‟ understanding as a fundamental issue in translation When a high percentage of people misunderstanding a rendering, it cannot be regarded as a legitimate translation, (Nida & Taber 1974, p.2) Catford (1965) defined translation from different perspective: Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL) (Catford, 1965, p.20) In his definition, Catford (1965) focuses on two important points such as “textual material” and “equivalence” Catford (1965) maintains that not the linguistic entirety of a source language is translated, but is replaced by target language equivalents, which may take place at one or more levels of language In his further explanation, the classification of translation types is useful because the translator will have to decide the kind of translation which s/he thinks may be appropriate for his/her purpose Wilss (1982) has a more thorough definition Translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written source language text into an optimally equivalent target language text, and which requires the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source language text (Wilss, 1982, p.3) Wilss (1982) uses the words “transfer process” to refer to complicated work which requires great considerations to obtain “an optimally equivalent target language text” Moreover, in his definition, translation takes place when the 10 “Internet is a very useful source of information Nowadays, we can stay at home, click the mouse and look up as much information as we can on the Internet It saves us much time and contains a great variety of information, which helps us raise our awareness, especially with precious and reliable documents, articles, books in a very wide variety of fields for my assignments, study in particular and social knowledge in general.” (Student Interview, April 5, 2010) However, in spite of usefulness of the Internet, not many students had any favorable conditions to get access to information A student of different province stated: “I come from a different province and often share the room with my classmate I as well as my friend depend on our parents We have no computers and cannot get access to the Internet As a result, we sometimes go to the Internet shops to look for our intended information If only I had a computer, everything would be better.‟ (Student Interview, April 10, 2010) As can be seen from the Chart 4.5, 45% of the participants often discussed with friends, asked teachers and others about cultural issues Many students agreed that exchanging information with others was very necessary and beneficial because they got to know many useful things in the world “Discussing with friends, asking teachers and others is one of effective way to widen our knowledge and understand the cultural matters more deeply We often exchange information and discuss cultural issues of different cultures Sometimes, we argue drastically excitedly and cannot come to a decision; however, we learn a lot about concept on life, different lifestyles Personally, I become „grown‟, „knowledgeable‟ and look on things or people of different cultures more objectively and reduce imposition of my culture on others” (Student Interview, April 26, 2010) 70 In addition, seeing foreign films improved cultural knowledge (40.0%) Foreign films demonstrate behaviors, lifestyles, tradition, fashion tendency…in a clear and lively way, so film-seers easily understand those cultures Many students said that they were attracted by the films which illustrated their countries, peoples, festivals and lifestyles…and they knew more about the world Only 20.0% of the participants answered that they talked with foreigners to widen their cultural knowledge Talking to foreigners improves not only linguistic knowledge but also cultural understanding; however, this figure is surprising Many students said that they enjoyed communicating with foreigners but they had few opportunities to approach Here is a student‟s idea: “I and my friends sometimes talk to foreigners and go on a trip to places of interest in Hue City We introduce Hue dishes, Hue culture and at the same time they tell us about their culture We also discuss with them about some cultural issues In fact, we learn a lot from practicing English with foreigners.” (Student Interview, April 10, 2010) “Although Hue City is a tourist city, we have a few opportunities to communicate with foreigners In addition, as a girl, I feel shy to go with foreigners because many other people have a strange look on me So I have to go with some friends In the other hand, it is very difficult to talk because I am afraid to disturb them Worse, as English major students, we feel nervous to talk to foreigners As a result, though aware of the benefit of talking to foreigners, I as well as my friends rarely speak to foreigners to improve our cultural knowledge.” (Student Interview, April 10, 2010) In sum, the students had many different ways to improve their cultural knowledge Of which they were prone to reading books and watching TV more than watching foreign films and talking to foreigners Many students were aware of the importance of getting access to information on the Internet, or talking to foreigners; however, they could not as they wanted due to their present unfavorable conditions 71 In addition, a large number of students discussed with friends, and consulted with other teachers about cultural issues, which helped to enhance their cultural knowledge 4.3 Conclusion In this chapter, data from questionnaires, teachers‟ in-depth interviews, students‟ were analysed and significant findings were presented The findings showed that the participants were all aware of the significance of culture-based words or culture in translation; however, they did not get engaged in translating as many cultural documents as they could due to many different reasons such as the boring teaching method, inappropriate teaching materials, lack of time, lack of reference books and differences of two cultures and two languages In addition, the frequency of translating cultural documents incorrect is relatively high because of their ignorance of cultural features hidden in the languages and imposition of their native culture on source language culture Besides, students employed various strategies, depending on their different situations such as the level of cultural knowledge, place, time, cultural focus of every text, reference documents In the other hand, students also improved their cultural knowledge by doing many different ways, however, they did not make the best use of ways or in other words , they did not “explore” the advantages of getting access to the Internet or talking to foreigners Students were not active enough to self-study or look up different sources of information by themselves 72 Chapter CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS This research was conducted to find out the students‟ views towards translating culture-based words The study also aimed to document the realities of employing the translation strategies in dealing with unfamiliar culture-based words at Phu Xuan University This last chapter presents the findings in brief, as well as some recommendations for teachers, policy makers and future researchers 5.1 Summary of the findings 5.1.1 What are Vietnamese English major students’ view towards translating culture-based words? The study result showed that all students were well aware of the significance of culture in translation Many participants asserted that culture and translation had a very close relationship Translation was the most important and common means of conveying customs, tradition, lifestyles, humor, colors and festivals…of one people for audience of different languages In addition, if one did not know cultural features in translation, s/he might cause regretful misunderstandings of target language audience In spite of being aware of the significance of culture in translation, only 20.0% of the participants often translated and 72.5% sometimes translated culturebased words respectively It could be said that these figures were rather “modest” and the students had few opportunities to practice culture-based words alive with cultural hidden meanings The reasons why the participants were short of their own interest in translating culture-based words were boring teaching method, inappropriate contents of lesson, lack of time, lack of reference books and differences of two languages and of two cultures and inside students such as their motivation, interests, curiosity and effort In addition, the difference s of two cultures were also a big barrier for the students to approach those words With such 73 causes, many students thought that culture-based words were somehow challenging, hard to understand and translate They often felt confused when translating unfamiliar culture-based words Therefore, they found it “afraid” to translate documents laden with culture and tended to practice economic documents or matters in other fields instead 5.1.2 What are the strategies in dealing with culture-based words? Many surveyed students employed different translation strategies in dealing with unfamiliar culture-based words Depending on students‟ cultural knowledge, place, time, cultural focus of every text and reference documents, students employed various strategies suitable with their situations Out of ten strategies, “Looking up in the dictionary or cultural book” (80.0%) and “Linguistic equivalence” (75.5%) were employed most respectively Many students asserted that dictionary was „an indispensable thing‟ in their student life The participants used “consulting friends, teachers‟ and others” (50.0%), Paraphrase (42.5%), Descriptive Equivalence (37.5 %), Functional Equivalence (35.0%), Transcription or 'borrowing' (30.0%), Notes (20.0%) and other strategies (17.5%) Using different strategies depended most on students‟ cultural knowledge, so improving cultural knowledge was also concern presented in this thesis To raise cultural awareness, students had various ways such as Reading books, newspapers and magazines (77.5%), Watching TV (70.0%), Getting access to information on the Internet (55.0%), Discussing with friends, consulting teachers and others (45.0%), Seeing foreign films (40.0%), and Talking to foreigners (20.0%) Although every student had his own circumstances, they did not make great effort to make use of abundant source of information on the Internet or talking to foreigners to improve their cultural knowledge It is time to reject the conception: “Teachers are the sole source of information” 5.2 Recommendations 5.2.1 For teachers Firstly, teachers are necessary to “renew” their teaching method more effectively As found out from student interviews and questionnaire, many 74 students felt dissatisfied with the boring and “sleepy” teaching method which discouraged the students‟ interest in translating cultural documents It is better to combine many methods such as the Lecture (transmitting factual information to a large number of students in a relatively short period of time), Discussion (two-way communication between the instructor and the students and among the students themselves which gives the students an opportunity for feedback, clarification and exchange of ideas), Audiovisual methods (including static media, dynamic media and communications to portray dynamic and complex events), Role Playing ("useful in assisting [students] to apply new concepts and skills and in shifting attitudes",Charney and Conway, 1998: 161), and Computer-based methods (using the computer as the main or sole deliverer of the material in the training session) That combination will make best use of the advantages of every method and promote students‟ motivation in translating cultural features Secondly, teachers should instruct application of translation theory to practice to students In fact, many students felt confused and did not know how to use the appropriate strategies in different contexts to gain the high effectivity in translation Therefore, an enthusiastic instruction together with clear explanation from teachers will help students understand the lessons better In addition, teachers need to recommend students good and relevant books, web pages so that they can look up and self-study easily 5.2.2 For students First of all, the students necessarily get engaged in translating many documents laden with culture more often As found from this study, although 100% of the participants were well aware of the significance of culture in translation, only 20% of the participants often translated and 72.5% sometimes translated culture-based words respectively If students understand the importance of culture in translation but rarely translate cultural documents, their translation ability is undoubtedly at a standstill It is commonly known that “Practice makes perfect” Only when practising translation regularly, they “clash the practice”, deal with their difficulties and definitely get along with their translation Students 75 must assignments, portfolios and practice required by teachers The translation assignments assigned by teachers are very important because they cover focuses and purposes of lessons in teachers‟ careful choice Moreover, students practise translating cultural documents by themselves and kindly ask teachers or others for correction In addition, they should also translate many cultural articles and compare with suggested ones in bilingual books or on the Internet Thank to getting to know cultural features and translation practice, students undoubtedly make progress in improving their translation ability in general and cultural knowledge in particular Secondly, students should make great effort to overcome language and culture barriers It is crystal clear that no languages are the same in every detail and neither are cultures As a result, there are always differences between languages as well as cultures, which cause many constraints to translators However, students “never say die” with culture-based words or cultural features In contrast, they consider those difficulties as a motivation to discover new and useful things for the purpose of enriching cultural knowledge By doing their best to get to know the culture-based words, they gradually attain sustainable progress in translating documents laden with culture To this, students should read as many as cultural documents such as books, magazines, periodicals and watch films in both target language and native language When meeting unfamiliar culture-based words or cultural matters, students should not be discouraged to “ignore” them; in contrast, they painstakingly find many ways to look up in cultural documents, printed or electronic dictionaries or consult others Gradually, they will accumulate much cultural knowledge and feel more confident to face those barriers Thirdly, students had better be more independent of their teachers As a student, they should self-study industriously instead of completely counting on their teachers as they used to be at high school It is high time they considered teachers as “instructors” or “facilitators” They should be active to look up documents, search information from different sources, and consult teachers, 76 others Students are necessarily well aware of high independence in preparing their lessons and fostering their knowledge by themselves instead of just listening passively to what teachers say Learning a language in general and translation in particular is a long-term accumulation but an overnight task, so independence and self-study can be a springboard for widening their cultural knowledge Fourthly, importantly students manage their time and spend much more time getting to know cultural features more frequently This will help students attain a gradual process in translating culture-based words The fact that there are many different disciplines during the semester and the whole course requires students to arrange their time appropriately and scientifically for assignments and mid-term tests or end- of-term tests In addition, the curriculum stipulated by the Ministry of Education and Training is unchangeable Therefore, students should make their schedule more appropriate to raise their ability of translating cultural documents Fifthly, students need to use appropriate translation strategies Translation aims at creating easy-to-understand, interesting and effective versions Especially when TL audience has the slightest ideas of culture-based words, translation strategies to deal with culture-based words must be appropriate to create a clear explanation and persuasive attraction, which is important in terms of translation purpose Avoidance or unclear explanation of culture-based words result in divergent expectations, or even cause potential misunderstanding for audience of different cultures As a result, students should be careful with translation strategies for unfamiliar culture-based words to gain the highest effectivity in translation To this, students necessarily master the application of translation theory to practice and pay much attention to techniques and strategies used in translation classes by teachers and in cultural documents from different sources of information to draw valuable experience for themselves Moreover, when translating cultural documents, they should be interested in who the readership is Importantly, because the strategies partly depend on readership or in other words, using translation strategies also has to be based on readership‟s educational level and familiar language 77 Sixthly, students should improve both English and Vietnamese at the same time As found from this study, many students just focused on English and made light of Vietnamese, which resulted in hard-to-understand expression in Vietnamese, in their mother tongue Therefore, students should practise writing skill both in English and Vietnamese Last but not least, students significantly take advantage of technological advancement to support their translation learning In other words, they should get access to the Internet, an abundant source of information with a great variety of different fields Students should be active to consult their teachers, friends and others about the reliable web pages or links or search their intended articles thank to Google Engine In addition, the Internet is available with the same articles in different languages, so students can translate the articles and compare with suggested versions to draw some experience for themselves By doing so, they undoubtedly improve their background knowledge and translation ability 5.2.3 For Policy makers Firstly, the library of the university needs to be equipped with more updated cultural books, newspapers, magazines, reference materials and computers so that students have access to an abundant and useful source of information Secondly, the university should assist students to have some useful “playgrounds” such as English-speaking clubs, culture-discovering contests, and student-level seminars in terms of financial support, facilities and implementing organization Moreover, the university needs to create favourable conditions for students to be taught by foreign teachers As the study results showed, as English major students, they hardly had useful “playgrounds” to exchange, share and learn cultural features from friends and others and at the same time they would like to consult foreigners With the essential assistance from the university, to some extent, students will be encouraged to get to know language learning in general and cultural features in particular 78 5.2.4 For Future Researchers This study was conducted with only forty participants who are majoring in English at Phu Xuan University The scale of the study is still small and it just reflects the general tendency of students‟ strategies in dealing with unfamiliar culture-based words in their translation work Besides, the data were collected by means of questionnaires and in-depth interviews without students‟versions Therefore, some areas for future research related to translation strategies of culturebased words are recommended as follows:  Larger-scale studies on the translation strategies to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words need to be done As reported in the findings, only forty students and four teachers participated in this study and the data were only collected from questionnaires and in-depth interviews If more participants had been involved in and data were collected from more sources, more valuable data would have been achieved, which reflect the situation more profoundly  Studies on how teaching methods affect learning of translating culture-based words As mentioned in the findings, teaching methods affected directly or indirectly the students‟ interest in translation Therefore, a specific study on teaching methods in translation classes may result in more benefit for students in translating documents laden with culture  Studies on how the native culture affects the translation of culture-based words As presented in the findings, students often translated culture-based words incorrectly due to imposing their native culture on the culture of target language Therefore, a study on the effect may be done to reduce incorrect translation by students  Case studies on how the translation strategies to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words This kind of studies would reflect the reality of the translation strategies to deal with unfamiliar culture-based words on specific participants, which would provide valuable data 79 REFERENCES IN ENGLISH: Adewuni, S (2006, April) Narrowing the gap between theory and practice of translation, 10(2) Retrieved December 20, 2009 from http://accurapid.com/journal/36yoruba.htm Baker, M (1992) In other words: A course book on translation London and New York: Routledge Bassnett, S (1980) Translation studies London: Routledge Bell, R T (1998) 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