Solutions to mistakes made by third year students in essay writing

TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLES OF CONTENTS PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale Aims and Objectives of the study Scope of the study Methods of the study Research questions Design of the study PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter I: LITERATURE REVIEW I.1 General Viewpoints on writing I.1.1 Introduction I.1.2 Definition of writing I.1.3 Benefits of Writing I.2 The differences between spoken and written language I.2.1: Vocabulary I.2.2: Grammar I.2.3 Other factors I.3 Overview of the essay writing I.3.1 Introduction I.3.2 The common structure of an essay 10 I.3.3 The parts of an essay 11 I.3.3.1 The introduction of an essay 11 I.3.3.2 The Body of an essay 12 I.3.3.3 The conclusion of an essay 14 I.4 The common kinds of the essay 15 I.4.1 Narration 16 I.4.1.1 Definition of a narrative essay 16 I.4.1.2 The purpose of a narrative essay 16 I.4.2 Description 17 I.4.2.1 Definition of a descriptive essay 17 I.4.2.2 The purpose of a descriptive essay 18 I.4.3 Exposition 19 I.4.3.1 Definition of an exposition essay 19 I.4.3.2 The purpose of an exposition essay 20 I.4.4 Argumentation 21 I.4.4.1 Definition of an argumentative essay 21 I.4.4.2 The purpose of an argumentative essay 22 I.4.5 Comparison and contrast 23 I.4.5.1 Definition of a comparison and contrast essay 23 I.4.5.2 The purpose of a comparison and contrast essay 24 I.5 Summary 24 Chapter II: FINDINGS, INTERPRETATIONS AND ANALYSIS 25 II.1 Introduction 25 II.2 Data collection 25 II.3 Data analysis 25 II.4 The most common mistakes in writing essays 26 II.4.1 Negligence of the main function of the thesis statement in the opening 26 II.4.2 Confusal of the component parts of paragraphs in an essay 27 II.4.4 Lack of details such as facts and evidences 29 II.4.5 Mistakes in coherence and unity 30 II.5 Summary 31 Chapter III: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE THIRD-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS AT HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY TO IMPROVE THE ESSAY WRITING 32 III.1 Introduction 32 III.2 Suggestions for the third-year English majors to improve the essay writing 32 III.2.1 Reading leads to better writing 32 III.2.2 Writing an essay outline 33 III.2.3.2 The Adverbs and Adjectives Mistakes 36 III.2.3.3 The Comma Mistakes 38 III.2.4 Using transitional words and phrases 38 III.2.5 Practice makes perfect 39 III.3 Summary 40 PART C: CONCLUSION 41 REFERENCES APPENDIX Graduation paper PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale Along with the rapid pace of social development, English is becoming a global language connecting people from all walks of life Therefore, English language education is an increasingly important element in education and training system of both developed and developing nations As a rule, every learner is required to take a variety of English examinations which function as a relatively reliable indicator of users’ linguistic ability Every test is normally made up of four major skills including Listening, Reading, Writing, and Speaking Of those skills, writing is variably regarded as the most difficult As a result, most learners tend to fear the writing subject, and the writing score is always the lowest compared with the other skills This is due to the fact that writing requires a strong command of grammar, lexical resources and a deep understanding of writing theories English learners in general and the third year English majors at Hanoi Open University in particular usually have difficulties in writing essays Therefore, the writer is going to shed light on the underlying reasons leading to poor performance and present the possible suggestions to improve students’ proficiency Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper Aims and Objectives of the study This research paper is aimed at analyzing some difficulties and proposing a number of possible solutions to help the third-year English majors at Hanoi Open University better their writing skill, especially essay writing Scope of the study Because of the permissible limits, this study just focuses on finding and analyzing some difficulties and possible suggestions in essay writing for the third-year English majors at Hanoi Open University Methods of the study In order to avoid doubt on the reliability and validity of the research paper, the writer employs several methods as follows: - Collecting and analyzing data on the writing skill of the third year English majors at Hanoi Open University - Pointing out and analyzing some difficulties in depth - Providing some suggestions for improvement - Asking the supervisor and some other teachers of writing at the faculty of English at Hanoi Open University for advice and guidance - Consulting various sources such as textbooks, reference books and websites Research questions This study has been carried out to clarify the two following questions: - What are the reasons leading to poor performance in essay writing? - What are the possible suggestions to improve students’ essay writing? Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper Design of the study To make the paper coherent, scientific and logical, the paper has been divided into three parts as follows: Part A: Introduction deals with rationale, research questions, scope, aims, methods, design of the study Part B: Development includes three chapters Chapter I, Literature Review, focuses on theoretical background Chapter II presents Findings, Interpretation and Analysis Chapter III is suggestions for the third-year English majors at Hanoi Open University to improve their essay writing Part C is the conclusion that summarizes the main points of the whole paper Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter I: LITERATURE REVIEW I.1 General Viewpoints on writing I.1.1 Introduction It is undeniable that when we learn English or any language, there are four skills that we need for our learning process, including Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Listening and Reading are known as ‘receptive’ skills while Speaking and Writing are known as ‘productive’ skills Writing is one of the practical language skills that people in all walks of life must perform daily Writing not only plays an important role in learning English, but it is also an essential skill in our daily lives It is due to the fact that writing skill will help you succeed not just at school and work but in everyday life as well because we need to use writing skills in many kinds of purposes such as writing letters to friends, relatives or applying for a job Writing can seem a daunting task, but it is a critical skill In addition, Writing is more complicated than it seems at first, and often seems to be the hardest of all the skills It is due to the fact that it requires writers to apply a wide range of things such as personal background knowledge, good grammar, rich vocabulary, clear points, well-organized ideas and deep understanding about writing theories Therefore, in order to open the door to enter the world of writing, writers have to understand clearly about something related to writing such as the definition and the importance of writing and essay systems Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper I.1.2 Definition of writing We can inform others, carry out transactions, persuade, infuriate, and tell what we feel through writing In addition, Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form Writing systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals Writing is a skill, like driving or word processing that you can master with hard work If you want to learn to write, you can It is as simple as that If you believe this, you are ready to learn how to become a competent writer So writing is a skill that anyone can learn with practice Writing is, in fact, a process It is done not in one easy step but in a series of steps Firstly, exploring and transmitting ideas, thought and feeling into written form Secondly, conducting a number of revising process to carry out a grammatically and orderly texts The writing productions are in the forms of readable texts which should be meaningful to everyone who reads the writing According to Elbow (1973) in Brown (2001: 336), “Writing is a two-step process The first process is figuring out the meaning and the second process is putting the meaning into language Writing represents what we think It is because the writing process reflects things, which stay in the mind.” Another definition of writing skill is also defined by Word reference (2010), “Writing is one of the ways to give an idea or message which is form in writing on a piece of paper or the other area It is an act of making marks on certain surface Specifically, writing is one kind of expression in language which is created by particular set of symbol, having conventional values for representing the wordings of particular language which is drawn up visually.” Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper I.1.3 Benefits of Writing Writing seems a key to a successful life and career because of several following reasons: Writing is a way to communicate with others When you talk, chances are you not treat everyone the same For instance, you are unlikely to speak to your boss in the same way that you chat with a young child Instead, you adjust what you say to suit the people who are listening to you – your audience To communicate effectively, people must constantly adjust their speech to suit their purpose and audience This same idea is true for writing When you write for others, it is crucial to know both your purpose for writing and the audience who will be reading your work The ability to adjust your writing to suit your purpose and audience will serve you well not only in the classroom, but also in the workplace and beyond Above all, writing will make you a stronger thinker Writing a solidly reasoned traditional essay requires mental discipline and close attention to a set of logical rules Creating an essay in which there is an overall thesis statement and in which each of three supporting paragraphs begins with a topic sentence is more challenging than writing a free-form or expressive paper Such an essay obliges you to carefully sort out, think through, and organize your ideas Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper You will learn to discover and express just what your ideas are and to develop those ideas in a logical, reasoned way Writing will train your mind to think clearly and that ability will prove to be of value in every phase of your life I.2 The differences between spoken and written language There are a wide range of differences including Vocabulary, Grammar and other factors: I.2.1: Vocabulary Vocabulary plays a vital role in both written and spoken language, but its role is absolutely different Everyone knows that the spoken word is soon forgotten, but not the written word Hence, once spoken, words cannot be retracted, although one can apologize for a mistake and improvise a clarification Spoken language undergoes continual change of which speakers may be relatively unaware Speech is usually transient, unless recorded, and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterances as they go along On the other hand, Writing is usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been printed out and it is hard to be rectified Therefore, writers have to spend a lot of time on selecting correct words in order to avoid making mistakes In addition, written language is generally more formal than spoken language Spoken language is usually informal and repetitive while written language is more formal and compact It progresses more logically with fewer explanations and digressions For instance, in spoken language, we usually say: “You wanna go out? At the same time, we write a sentence having the same meaning: “Would you like to go out? -> The written language is more formal Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly in speech These include slang expression or even swear words and more simple words such as doctor, medical, practitioner, etc However, if we use those types of words in written Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) Graduation paper • There is a pen, some pencils, and a rubber on the table • There are pens, one pencil and some rubbers on the table Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb : • More than one student has tried this • Two and two is four A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and considers those people, places, or things one singular unit Because collective nouns are counted as one, they are singular and require a singular verb Some commonly used collective nouns are group, team, army, flock, family, and class • My class is going on a field trip Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well not change the number of the subject If the subject is singular, the verb is too • The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to Vietnam III.2.3.2 The Adverbs and Adjectives Mistakes Different kinds of adverbs and adjectives go in different positions in a sentence so students often find it difficult to use them correctly An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies a noun or pronoun Adjectives may come before the word they modify Adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs Adverbs answer how, when, where, why, or to what extent—how often or how much Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 36 Graduation paper There are the basic rules of using adverbs and adjectives: Many adverbs end in -ly, but many not, so if a word can have ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb • She is a quick/quickly thinker → Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -ly is attached Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs such as taste, smell, look, feel, which pertain to the senses • The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches → Here the woman actively looked (used her eyes), so the -ly is added When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns • This horse is for sale → This is an adjective • This is for sale → This is a pronoun Bad or Badly? When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective When you say, "I feel bad." Saying "I feel badly" would be like saying you play football badly "I feel badly" would mean that you are unable to feel, as though your hands were numb Good or Well? Good is an adjective, so you not good or live good, but you well and live well Remember, though, that an adjective follows sense-verbs and Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 37 Graduation paper be-verbs, so you also feel good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good Near or Nearly? Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite.” III.2.3.3 The Comma Mistakes Comma use is a little more complicated than the period A common instruction for using a comma is to indicate a pause in the sentence While this sometimes works, it is not an appropriate method to determine comma placement because it does not take into account the rules of use Sentences that are independent but joined together by and, or, so, yet, but, for, and nor should be separated with a comma Most dogs will definitely eat human food, and a few will climb onto the table to get it III.2.4 Using transitional words and phrases Transition words and phrases (sometimes also called 'conjunctive adverbs') are vital devices for essays because they improve the connections and transitions between sentences and paragraphs In addition, they give the text a logical organization and structure, so it is easier for readers to understand • The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise, moreover, similarly …-> add information, reinforce ideas, and express agreement with preceding material • Transition phrases like but, rather, in contrast, unlike, while, wheares, and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 38 Graduation paper out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast) • Transition phrases like when, whenever, owing to, since, in order to, so that, in case, present specific conditions or intentions • These transitional devices (like especially, in other words, including, like, namely, in general ) are used to introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader • Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect • Transition phrases like in fact, in conclusion, to sum up, as can be seen, obviously, definitely, conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas, or indicate a final general statement Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize III.2.5 Practice makes perfect Essay writing is a skill students must demonstrate in almost every subject, including the sciences No one “escapes” having to write an essay At the same time, no one becomes a great writer overnight Practice can help students improve their writing in a number of ways It is due to the fact that students must practice the correct techniques in order to avoid common mistakes in grammar, spelling and improper organization For this reason, it is important for students to receive appropriate feedback so they can revise their essays throughout the writing process Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 39 Graduation paper With practice, students gain the skills necessary to confidently organize these ideas into a cohesive, logical essay structure Just about anyone can write an essay if they know what steps to follow, and essay organization can make the difference between a good essay and a poor essay The more students write, the better writers they will become They should spend an hour writing an essay on a regular basis Hours of hard work and training are the key to success III.3 Summary In this chapter, some suggestions have been made towards the mistakes made by students with the hope that students of English can employed them in their essay writing process so as to make wonderful piece of writing Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 40 Graduation paper PART C: CONCLUSION Once again, writing is the skill that people must perform almost all the time It is an undeniable fact that writing not only plays an important role in learning English, but it is also an essential skill in our daily lives Learning writing is really essential; however, writing is not an easy subject due to the fact that it requires writers to apply a wide range of things such as personal background knowledge, good grammar, rich vocabulary, clear points, well-organized ideas and deep understanding about writing theories As a result, the students have to be familiar with a number of kinds and structures of the essays Therefore, the writer pointed out some common errors in students’ essay writing with the hope of contributing some suggestions for students to improve their essay writing Due to the limit of time and condition, although the writer has made a lot of efforts to fulfil this graduation paper, shortcomings are inevitable Therefore, it is expected to receive comments, criticisms, and suggestions with a view of bettering the contents and effectiveness Phạm Minh Cẩm Chi - K19A08 - (2012-2016) 41 REFERENCES BOOK REFERENCES: Aldous Huxley (1958) Collected Essays Harper and Brothers Bailey, S (2006) Academic writing: a handbook for international students Abingdon: Routledge Bookhacker (2013) How to Write a Great Essay Edition, Kindle Edition Broukal, M (2000), Weaving It Together, Book Heinle Publishers, Boston Godwin, J (2009) Planning your essay Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Greetham, B (2013) How to write better essays Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Hairston, M.C (1992), Successful Writing, Norton Hopkins, Carolyn (2002) Five-Paragraph Essay Writing Skills Using Various Writing Strategies Nova Southeastern University John Langan (2003), Sentence Skills: A Workbook for Writers, Form B McGraw-Hill Higher Education 10 Levin, P (2009) Write great essays! A guide to reading and essay writing for undergraduates and taught postgraduates Maidenhead: Open University Press SOURCES FROM INTERNET 11 http://www.timeforkids.com/files/2011-07/comparecontrastsampler.pdf 12 http://essayinfo.com/essays/ 13 http://examples.yourdictionary.com/narrative-essay-examples.html 14 https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/practice-makes-perfect-becominga-professional-writer-N7n9nehO 15 http://www.bostonreadwrite.com/write-write-write-why-practice-makesperfect 16 http://www.smart-words.org/linking-words/transition-words.html 17 http://www.mygretutor.com/GREEssay/periodsCommas.aspx 18 http://www.grammarly.com/blog/2014/essay-writing-mistakes-the-3-ssand-how-to-correct-them/ 19 https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/536/02/ http://www.ieltsbuddy.com/subject-verb-agreement.html 20 http://www.essay-writing-tips.com/common-mistakes/grammar-mistakesin-essay-writing.html 21 http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Good-Essay-in-a-Short-Amount-ofTime 22 http://www.schoolatoz.nsw.edu.au/homework-and-study/homeworktips/10-tips-for-writing-an-essay APPENDIX How often you practice writing essays? A Regularly B Sometimes C Seldom D Hardly ever Which ones you find most difficult? A Idea generation B Vocabulary C Grammar D How to open Do you usually pay attention to the thesis statement when writing? A All the time B Sometimes C Rarely D Only write what you can think of How you get ideas for your writing? A Over the Internet B Books, Journals and Reference materials C Lecturers or experts in the field D Group discussions Which technique(s) you apply for your writing? A Free writing B Questioning C Making a list D Clustering Which errors or mistakes you often make? A Unity B Support C Coherence D Sentence skills Which parts of the essay you find most difficult? A Introduction B Body C Conclusion D All of them Do you often get confused when starting essay writing, especially with thesis statement? A Sometimes B Always C A little bit D Never Do you often lay out your essay before writing? A Sometimes B Always C A little bit D Never 10 Have you ever checked grammar and spelling or revised the content after finishing your writing? A Always B Sometimes C A little bit D Never Guidelines for writing a narrative essay “If written as a story, the essay should include all the parts of a story” When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot (The events as they unfold in sequence) , characters (The people who inhabit the story and move it forward Typically, there are minor characters and main characters The minor characters generally play supporting roles to the main character, or the protagonist.) , setting, climax, and ending It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story All of the details relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make “The essay should be written from a clear point of view” “The use of the first person pronoun ‘I’ is welcomed” In addition, writers should try to involve the reader by making the story as vivid as possible The fact that narrative essays are usually written in the first person helps engage the reader “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story A well-crafted narrative essay will also build towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal statement “As always, be organized!” Have a clear introduction that sets the tone for the remainder of the essay Do not leave the reader guessing about the purpose of your narrative Remember, you are in control of the essay, so guide it where you desire (just make sure your audience can follow your lead) Guidelines for writing a descriptive essay “Take time to brain storm” Before writing a descriptive essay, we should spend some time to think about whom or what we want to describe and why Do we want to write about a person or significance in our lives, or an object or place that holds meaning? Brainstorm before you put pen to paper or fingers to keyboard If your topic involves describing your dream last night, you’ll want to start jotting down specific details about it For example, if you dreamed about your family you’ll want to write down whom in your family Once you have written down some words, you can begin by compiling descriptive lists for each one If you can describe emotions or feelings related to your topic, you will connect with the reader on a deeper level Many have felt crushing loss in their lives, or ecstatic joy, or mild complacency Tap into this emotional reservoir in order to achieve your full descriptive potential “Use your own senses! “ The key to writing the perfect descriptive essay is creating a vivid image in your reader's mind using the five senses.if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to the senses of the reader Explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted, or looked Embellish the moment with senses.Your descriptions should try to focus on the five senses because we all rely on these senses to experience the world The use of sensory details, then, provides you the greatest possibility of relating to your audience and thus engaging them in your writing, making descriptive writing important not only during your education but also during everyday situations “Be organized!” Organized elements play a vital role in your essay due to the fact that it is easy to fall into an incoherent rambling of emotions and senses when writing a descriptive essay However, you must strive to present an organized and logical description if the reader is to come away from the essay with a cogent sense of what it is you are attempting to describe So you always have to remember that you should keep your essay organized No matter how descriptive you are, no one is going to know what you’re describing if everything is out of order If you just stuff your essay full of descriptive words, emotions, and senses, you might leave your reader thinking that you were describing one thing when in fact you were describing something completely different Guidelines for writing an exposition essay “A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay” It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective essay Start a brief outline by writing a tentative thesis statement that addresses the assignment prompt Try to come up with an interesting, original perspective on your topic, and word the thesis so that it reflects that originality Effective thesis statements express the main focus of a paper and state an arguable claim A thesis should not be more than one sentence in length Make sure your thesis is arguable Do not state facts or matters of taste Make sure your thesis provides enough detail In other words, avoid just saying that something is "good" or "effective." Instead, say what makes something "good" or "effective” “Body paragraphs that include evidential support” After you have stated your topic sentence, provide specific evidence from your research to support it Offer a new piece of evidence for every body paragraph in your essay Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph Most of your evidence should be in the form of cited quotes, paraphrases, and summaries from your research In addition, your evidence could also come from interviews, anecdotes, or personal experience Try to provide at least two to three pieces of evidence to support each of your claims “A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided” This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader Therefore, it must be effective and logical Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the essay.A conclusion that emphasizes your central idea without being repetitive The concluding paragraph reinforces the position in a meaningful way Guidelines for writing an argumentative essay “A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay” In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way Next the author should explain why the topic is important (exigence) or why readers should care about the issue Lastly, students should present the thesis statement It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay A good argumentative thesis is centered on a debatable topic The thesis statement should be one or two sentences long, and it should at minimum present your thesis to readers Ideally, you can also briefly explain your main reasons behind the thesis “Present both sides of the controversy” The body of your essay will contain the meat of your argument You should go into more detail about the two sides of your controversy and state the strongest points of the counter-side of your issue After describing the "other" side, you will present your own viewpoint and then provide evidence to show why your position is the correct one Select your strongest evidence and present your points one by one Use a mix of evidence types, from statistics, to other studies and anecdotal stories This part of your paper could be any length, from two paragraphs to two hundred pages Re-state your position as the most sensible one in your summary paragraphs Guidelines for a comparison and contrast essay • Choose items that are related in some way so they can be compared or contrasted • Compare according to a single organized idea • Choose a method of development that works well with your organizing idea • Use specific and relevant examples for support • Give equal treatment to both elements that you are discussing • Use transitional words or phrases to help the reader understand the similarities and differences in your subject • Conclude your paper by restating your thesis, summarizing the main points, and give the reader the final ‘so what’ of the major similarities and/or differences that you discussed