the development of ethics from socrates to the reformation volume 1 nov 2007

The Development of Ethics This page intentionally left blank The Development of Ethics A Historical and Critical Study Volume I: From Socrates to the Reformation TERENCE IRWIN 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford   Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York  Terence Irwin 2007 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2007 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 978–0–19–824267–3 10 In Memoriam Henry Ernest Irwin 1915–2006 This page intentionally left blank PREFACE This book was originally intended to be a companion to The Development of Logic, by William and Martha Kneale, published by Oxford in 1962 I undertook it at the suggestion of Angela Blackburn, who was at that time editor for Philosophy at the Press, and with the encouragement of Sir Anthony Kenny, who was at that time the Delegate to the Press for Philosophy I was doubtful whether I could match the learning, acuity, clarity, and brevity of Kneale and Kneale, and my doubts have certainly been vindicated To say nothing of the first three features of Kneale and Kneale, I have not been able to achieve their brevity On the contrary, the work has expanded to three volumes, and in this respect resembles a Victorian novel The three-volume novel has not been universally admired In The Importance of Being Earnest, Miss Prism offers a rather unsuccessful defence: MISS PRISM Do not speak slightingly of the three-volume novel, Cecily I wrote one myself in earlier days CECILY Did you really, Miss Prism? How wonderfully clever you are! I hope it did not end happily? I don’t like novels that end happily They depress me so much MISS PRISM The good ended happily, and the bad unhappily That is what Fiction means CECILY I suppose so But it seems very unfair According to the incisive literary critic Lady Bracknell, Miss Prism’s work was ‘a threevolume novel of more than usually revolting sentimentality’ Though Henry James is less direct than Lady Bracknell, he none the less denounces some Victorian novels as ‘large, loose, baggy monsters, with their queer elements of the accidental and the arbitrary’ (Preface to The Tragic Muse) I have not sought to draw precisely the moral described by Miss Prism, but I have a reasonably optimistic attitude to the history of ethics, and I don’t know whether I have avoided revolting sentimentality Some readers, if they get through the whole book, may well take Henry James’s view But perhaps some reasons can be given to explain why it is looser and baggier than Kneale and Kneale, and may not be free of queer elements of the accidental and the arbitrary Kneale and Kneale decided, quite reasonably, to devote most space to logic after 1879, and to treat the previous history relatively briefly Any similar decision about the history of ethics would be misguided, Even if we supposed that, say, moral philosophy made a great advance in 1874 with Sidgwick’s Methods of Ethics, we could hardly understand or evaluate Sidgwick’s achievement without a comparison with his predecessors More important, good reasons can be given for doubting whether Sidgwick in the 19th century, or Kant or Hume in the 18th, or Hobbes in the 17th, made the sort of advance that would justify us in relegating their predecessors to a relatively minor role Preface Many people teaching the history of moral philosophy, or teaching moral philosophy from a historical point of view, would probably want to include some ‘pre-modern’ moralist, usually Aristotle, in their presentation of the area Alasdair MacIntyre said he wanted to include the Greeks in his Short History of Ethics for the sake of undergraduates confined to the ‘treadmill’ of Hume, Kant, Mill, and Moore (Preface) Fewer people, however, have taken it to be equally important to discuss moral philosophy between Aristotle and Hobbes I have tried to something to encourage the closer study of moral philosophy between the 4th century  and the 17th century , This choice has greatly increased the size of the book One might well argue, however, that my treatment of this important period is still too short While I have given some space to Aquinas and to Suarez, the treatment of Augustine, Scotus, and Ockham is quite brief, and many important people (including Neoplatonists, Church Fathers, Abelard, and less well-known mediaeval writers) are omitted The decision to omit them reflects my aim (explained further in the Introduction) of concentrating on the development of an Aristotelian outlook, but it may have been mistaken At any rate, I hope this part of the book will encourage some more people to pursue the study of mediaeval moral philosophy far enough to discover how little of it I have covered A further reason for the length of this book is my aim of expounding different views fully enough to show what can be said for and against them This is not meant to be a neutral exposition that refrains from evaluation; I also try to defend, object, or revise, where it seems appropriate Success in these tasks would demand would need a clear understanding of all the major questions in moral philosophy, not to mention the relevant questions in other areas of philosophy Readers who understand the questions better than I will no doubt discover many errors in interpretation and judgment But perhaps they will be encouraged to improve the account that I offer Some parts of this book (e.g., the chapters on Aristotle, Hume, Kant, Mill) cover very familiar ground and express views on questions that many others have discussed in detail Other parts (e.g., the chapters on Suarez, Cudworth, Balguy, Price) discuss moralists who have received far less attention from moral philosophers writing in English I have tried, as far as possible, to ignore the familiarity or unfamiliarity of a particular author I have not refrained from going over familiar issues; nor have I discussed someone at greater length simply because he has attracted more attention from other critics Readers may well find, therefore, that the discussion of Kant (e.g.) is rather thin, in so far as it overlooks some of the questions, elaborations, and complications that have resulted from later philosophical criticism This uneven character (as it may seem) of different parts of the book reflects my attempt to allocate space to different people according to their importance in the argument, not according to the degree of attention they have attracted Though the three volumes are being published separately, they have been conceived as a single study The division simply results from the excessive length of the book The volumes begin at reasonably natural places (the second with Suarez, the third with Kant), but I would not want the reader to attach any particular philosophical significance to these divisions One inconvenience for the reader results from the separate publication of the volumes I have not inserted cross-references to later volumes, in case the sections are re-numbered in the final stages of revision Instead I have inserted references to the works of later viii Preface philosophers When readers have the later volumes in their hands, they should be able to find some relevant discussion by looking at the chapters that discuss these later works The notes and bibliography are intended to give the necessary information reasonably briefly It seemed to me difficult and unnecessary to try to separate ‘original sources’ from ‘secondary sources’ (where ought Sidgwick’s Outlines, for instance, to be placed?), and so I have gathered them all in a single alphabetical list Readers who consult the list of abbreviations should be able to cope with the notes and bibliography I have been working intermittently on this book since 1990 or so, but it expresses an interest, beginning in the early 1970s, in the history of ethics I mainly owe this interest to the teaching and advice of Gregory Vlastos, and to some conversations with John Rawls Hence many of the papers I have published have provided matter, more or less proximate, for the following chapters I have also learned from many people during this time I have been working on this book Some of them are the helpful and well-informed people who, on hearing about the project, asked me questions of the form: ‘And what are you going to say about X?’ In some cases I had to say ‘Who?’, and in some cases ‘Nothing’ The present length of the book is partly the result of such questions To many reasonable questions of the same form I would still have to say what Dr Johnson said about an entry in his dictionary: ‘Ignorance, madam, pure ignorance.’ But in some cases I discovered that X was worth reading and discussing, and moreover that Y, discussed by X, also deserved attention, and so on I have received comments from a number of helpful and acute anonymous referees For Volume in particular, I am pleased to be able to thank Gareth Matthews and Richard Kraut by name Among those whose work I have learned most from I would include Richard Kraut, John Cooper, Julia Annas, and Alasdair MacIntyre In trying to construct some reasonably clear lines of argument, I have been helped considerably by the patient, intelligent, and thoughtful students, both undergraduate and graduate, at Cornell who have heard and discussed some of the main ideas in this book in many courses on the history of ethics The tenacity of those who have lasted through a whole academic year, and not just one term, has been especially encouraging Though the book contains too much to squeeze into a 28-week academic year, these students have probably been the readers I have had in mind most often Since I have taught in the Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell for quite a few years, I have absorbed—no doubt incompletely—many aspects of the philosophical outlook of my colleagues If I have any slight grasp of any relevant questions in metaphysics and epistemology, I owe much of it to Richard Boyd and Sydney Shoemaker My temerarious efforts in the study of mediaeval philosophy were encouraged by the models of scholarship and philosophical imagination provided by Norman Kretzmann and Scott MacDonald If I have any slight grasp of moral philosophy, I owe much of it to Nicholas Sturgeon Though he will certainly find that many things I say are false, confused, or superficial, anything that approaches truth or clarity probably results from his influence I owe so much, in so many ways, to Gail Fine that I will not even try to describe it in detail The writing of this book might have taken even longer had I not been able to work on it during several periods of leave, which I owe to Cornell University, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Guggenheim Foundation In 2004 I was fortunate to spend a ix Index election (cont.) deliberation 96, 251, 266, 273, 359 freedom 267 friendship 336 God, angels 266 good 69 continence and incontinence 92, 97, 105, 296 passion 174, 285, 289 prudence 91, 320–1 reason 94 vice 84, 93, 105, 109, 298 virtue 66 89, 94, 96, 105, 111, 293, 320, 328, 375 will 300 emotion; see passion empiricism 144, 150 end, ends action 190, 200 appropriate action 178, 184 crafts 184 deliberation 178 indifferents 186 knowledge of 243 nature 189 objective 166, 190 practical reason 179 prudence 320 virtue 187, 189, 320 Epicharmus 33 Epicurus, Epicureans appearances 144 Aristotle 88, 95, 144, 159, atoms, swerve 149 belief 138, 151 causation 148 common beliefs 145, 156–7 Cynics 143 Cyrenaics 34, 145 death 152–3 determinism 143, 146–8, 150, 172, 213, 225 dialectic 153 eudaemonism 66, 143, 145, 166 fine 157 friendship 159 Gyges’ ring 50, 158 happiness 15, 125, 138, 146, 151, 154–5 hedonism 95, 143–4, 155–7, 159–60 justice 50, 158 memory 138, 154 morality 150, 157 nature 144–5 154, 160 passions 144 Plato 158 pleasure 88, 145, 151, 153–4, 156, 166 practical reason 180 preconceptions 144, 150 Scepticism 130, 144–5 self-sufficiency 25, 143, 158 798 Socrates 9, 22 temperance 157 tranquillity 182 virtue 156–8, 162, 229 wisdom 16, 159 equality 337 equipollence see Scepticism Erasmus 418 estimative capacity 245 eternal law see law eudaemonism Aquinas 339 Aristotle 31, 66, 72–3 Augustine 224 Christianity 214 common good 339 Cyrenaics 32, 53–4145, 166 deliberation 359 Democritus 32 Epicurus 143, 145 freedom 362, 377, 388 friendship 122 hedonism 21, 23–4, 29–32, 34, 36, 54, 145, 155, 160 intellectualism 224, 367 justice 339 morality 64, 114, 162 Ockham 387–8 Plato 64, 66 prudence 377 rational agency 31, 279 Scotus 360–3, 367, 377 self-love 162, 365 Sidgwick 58, 73 sin 365–6 Socrates 13, 17, 23, 27 Stoics 162 time 24, 31 voluntary 224, 367 will 223, 360, 367 Eudoxus 32, 66, 95 exceptions to natural law 318 existentialism 20, 39–40 explanation 44, 67, 74–5 fairness 340 faith 213, 351, 353, 419 fate 146, 169, 171, and see determinsm fine aesthetic aspects 116, 120 Ambrose 332 Aristotle 106–7, 116–21 beautiful 63 bravery 118 common good 12, 106, 116–17 contested goods 333 deliberation 127 external goods 181 Index friends 120 generosity 120 honestum 180, 332–5, 339, 399, 404, 417 just 12, 17, 68, 117, 335, 339 magnanimity 121 magnificence 120 necessary 61–2 passion 105, 107 pleasure 12, 157 practical reason 106–7, 180 praise 181 preconceptions 180 reason 107 116, 180 self-love 106, 116 Socrates on temperance 119 virtue 12, 14, 79, 105, 116, 156–7, 180–1, 333, 417 first order beliefs 141 flesh v spirit 210, 212, 218 forms, Platonic 42, 44, 61, 63 fortune Aristotle 121, 190 Cynics 38 happiness 15, 91, 121, 125, 188, 190, 281, 283 Socrates 38 wisdom 15 foundationalism 134 freedom, freewill (liberum arbitrium) Adam 223 Alexander 264 angels 266, 270 Aquinas 241, 263–70, 284, 346 Aristotle 264 Augustine 225 charity 352 Christianity 213 deliberation 266, 359 desire 243 determinism Epicurus 146–7 eudaemonism 362, 377, 388 God 266, 270, 307, 346–7, 384–5 396 good 267 grace 213, 351–2 happiness 249 Holy Spirit Aquinas 353 intellect 269 373 judgment Aquinas 265 justice 364 justification 351–2 natural law God 380 nature 349 necessity 266, 270 Ockham 388 passion 286 Paul 223 799 Pelagius 225 practical reason 368 predestination 225 rational agency 241, 267 reasons, external 268 Scotus 362, 364, 366, 384 sin 343–4, 366, 418 Stoics 172 virtue 283–4, 372 voluntarism 390, 400 voluntary 241, 263 will friend, friendship Albert 332 Aquinas 336–7 Aristotle 122–8, 159 circles 194 citizens 122, 125–7 common beliefs 159 common good 122 community 122, 127, 197–9 defences of 159 Epicurus 159 equality 337 extension 126, 128, 194 extent 126, 194 fine, honestum 127, 180, 322 function 120, 125 generosity 120 goods, external 125 goodwill 123 happiness 82, 122, 125, 196, 200 hedonism 159 impartiality 195 importance 66 justice 122, 126–7, 194, 337 living together 124 love magnanimity 121 morality 122–8 nature 123, 125, 337, 339 other self 123–6, 128, 194, 196, 336 passions 198 political 122 practical reason 125, 127, 194 self-love 81, 124 self-sufficiency 125 Stoics 194–6, 198, 200–1 types 123 virtue 333 wisdom 159 function 59–60, 62, 74–84, 99, 120, 122, 125, 181, 279 generosity 115, 120, 385 Glaucon and Adeimantus 50–1, 61 Gnostics 212 Index God cause 270, 345 creator v legislator 204 duty 303, 381 freedom 266, 270, 346, 384, 396 generosity 385 grace justice 381, 384, 397 justification 351 love 63, 210, 341, 356, 365, 417 morality 11, 204–5, 306–7, 314, 398 natural law 306–7, 378–80, 414 obligation 396 passions 244 power 381, 396, 398, 412 predestination 164, 213, 225, 345, 347, 418 providence 345 right 399 sin 343–5, 347, 418 virtue 197, 395 vision of 282 will 307, 314, 399–400 Godfrey of Fontaines 358, 390 Gonet 417 good, goods appearances 137 common good comparison 245 contested 107, 119, 333 criteria 32 election 69 external 37, 52, 70, 79, 125, 181, 188 function 74 honestum 332–4 intelligence 55–6 natural 65, 135, 137, 181 non-instrumental 72 objective 65 of others 71 pleasure see hedonism universal 243, 247, 250, 254 good, final, ultimate aiming 248 Aquinas 247–8, 267, 271–4, 317, 327 Aristotle 68–9 complete 32, 53, 57 comprehensive 68, 273 conscience 317 deliberation 69 formal conditions 32, 53, 66 freedom 267 happiness 69 natural law 272, 309 nature 274 passions 244 perfection 274 political science 69 800 practical reason 317 role 68 will 239, 247, 271 good of others 71, 227, 335, 338 Good Samaritan 207–8, 393 good will 58 goodwill 123 grace faith 419 freedom 213, 225, 347, 352 justification 209–10 352, 419 merit 351, 419 virtue 350 420 Green 3–4, 6, 113, 116 Grote 21–2, 58–9 Grotius 113 growing 33 Gyges’ ring 50, 158 habit, habituation agency 99 capacities 285 nature 140 pleasure and pain 88, 92 responsibility 90 virtue 85, 87, 92, 102 happiness action 48, 200 adaptive conception 25, 31, 36–40, 125, 151, 154–5, 158, 181–2 advantage 363 animals and children 91 appropriate actions 182 belief 138 Callicles 23 citizens 61 common beliefs 13, 15, 32 complete 70, 79, 81, 125, 280–3 composite 57, 60, 66, 72, 96 comprehensive 17, 52, 71, 82, 184 conflicting appearances 32 Cyrenaics 33 deliberation see deliberation divine grace 283 duty 64 external goods 70, 79, 188, 281 fine 79 formal conditions 71, 74, 82, 227, 280 fortune 91, 121, 281, 190, 281, 283 freedom 248–9, 283 friendship 82, 200 function 122, 125, 279 good of others 18, 23, 52, 57–9, 61, 71, 81–2, 127, 197–200, 281, 311–12, 335, 337, 339, 364 grades 281, 283, 356 intellectual love 278 justice 18, 23, 52, 57–9, 61, 364 Index memory 138, 154 morality 279, 282–3, 363 nature 79, 189, 196 pagan conception 226 passions 82 perfection 274, 276–8, 361 pleasure see hedonism Plotinus 82 political activity 127 practical reason 178, 180, 190 preconceptions 190 prudence 98 reason-giving 18 role 18, 190 Schopenhauer 58 self-sufficiency 25, 81–2, 125, 280 stability 283 supernatural 354 theoretical study 82, 280, 282 time 32 tranquillity 138–9, 182 up to us 283 virtue 14–15, 17–19, 26, 36–7, 39, 51–2, 55, 57–8, 70, 181, 189, 196, 217, 227, 230, 282, 320, 360–1 vision of God 282 will 217, 360–1 wisdom 14 hedonism Aristotle 88 Callicles 23 Cynics 143 Cyrenaics 29–30, 34, 54, 95 Democritus 32 dialectic 144, 153 Epicurus 144, 155–7 eudaemonism 21, 23–4, 29–31, 34, 36, 53–4, 143, 145–6, 153, 155 friendship 159 incontinence 27 justice 23 nature 160 present and future 30 prudence 24, 53 Socrates 21–4, 36 Stoics 166 types 21 unqualified 29, 54 virtue 22, 31, 36, 157, 160 Hegel 61, 161 hekousion see voluntary Hellenistic age 161 Henry of Ghent 358, 391, 406 Heracles 38, 40 Hobbes 4, 23, 48, 50, 77, 111, 113, 123, 130, 141, 158, 162, 199, 391, 399, 406, 409–10, 417, 422 holism 134 Holy Spirit 352–3 801 Homer 404 honestum see fine honour 70 Hooker 414 human function see function human nature see nature Hume 4, 11, 48–9, 77, 90, 92, 90, 123, 130, 141–2, 166, 201, 259, 316, 391 humility 331, 403 Hus 417 Hutcheson 111, 201, 259, 316 ignorance 104 292, 294–5 immediate judgments 245 impartiality 129, 195, 204 incompatibilism see determinism incontinence see continence indeterminism see determinism indiffererents see Stoics inquiry, 131 intellect, intellectualism 92, 224, 256–9, 268–9, 288, 307, 358, 367, 373, 388 intellectual love see love intelligence 53, 55–6 intuition 319 ius see right Jansenists 216 417 Jerome 317 Job 205 just, justice common beliefs 19 common good 117, 338–9 consequence Plato 51 Critias 51 definitions 45 deliberation 126 Epicurus 50, 158 equality 337 eudaemonism 23, 339 fairness 340 fine, honestum 12, 17, 68, 117, 335, 339 freedom 364 friendship 122, 126–7, 194, 337 function 59–60, 62 general and special 68, 117, 338 God 381, 396 Good Samaritan 207 grace 210 happiness 18, 23, 51–2, 57–9, 61 hedonism 23 Hobbes 158 law 194 Mandeville 51 morality 129, 404 natural law 301 nature 60, 127, 335, 337, 349 Index just, justice (cont.) obligations 61 other-regarding 59, 61, 64 philosopher-rulers 62, 340 Plato 50–2, 57, 59, 60, 61, 158 pleasure 22 Polus 64 practical reason 368 preconceptions 165 Protagoras 135 prudence 376 reciprocity 62 right (ius) 338 Scotus 364, 381 self-sacrifice 62 soul 45, 51, 59, 53–4 Thrasymachus tranquillity 158 utility, common good 338 virtue 117, 350, 406 will 338, 363 justification (epistemological) 67, 122 justification (theological) 208–11, 351–2, 419 kalon see fine Kant assent 142 Christianity 343 criticisms of eudaemonism 162 fine 181 friendship 201 good will 51, 58 impartiality 129 love 336 maxims 104 morality 114 naturalism 4, 238 objective end 276 practical reason 368 responsibility 90 virtue 50 201, 229, 299 will 391 kathˆkon see Stoics, appropriate action e kinetic pleasure see pleasure knowledge see virtue Lactantius 206, 228 law command 304 community 197 Decalogue 203 divine and natural 283 eternal 303, 306–7 impartiality 204 justice 194 love of neighbour 204 802 moral and ceremonial 204 morality 214, 302 nations 313 obligation, ought 303 publication 305 reason 304 virtue 211, 395 law, natural Aristotle 127 Augustine 226 Butler 310 Christianity 206, 421 community of rational agents 199 conscience 318, 323, 374 Cudworth 399 Decalogue 313, 378–9, 382 dispensations 314, 383 divine commands 379–80 divine law 283 duties to self 313 eternal law 306 final good 272, 309 first principle 272, 307, 310 God 306–7, 378, 384–5 Hooker 414 intellectualism 307 love of neighbour 206–7 Melanchthon 413, 421 morality 226, 313, 417 nature 311 obligation 303 pagan virtue 228 Paul 206, 412 precepts, exceptions 318 principles 272, 307, 310, 313, 318 prudence 306, 323, 342 reason 304, 309 Reformation 412, 421 Scotus 378–80 sin 308 teleological theory 301, 315 virtue 310, 313 voluntarism 380, 412 Leibniz 228 Leon 12, 17 Lipsius 182 Locke 302 love elective 250 eudaemonism 365 fine 63 forms (Platonic) 63 friendship see friendship God 63, 229, 234, 356 intellectual 244, 259, 275–6, 278, 336–7 intellectualism 373 neighbour 204–10, 215, 291, 336, 416 Index propagation 63 self 63, 291, 341, 417 society 226 virtue 229 Lucifer see Satan Luther grace, 419–20 merit 419 moral philosophy 411 morality 410, 422 natural law 412, 414, 417, 421 reason 202 self-love 416–17 sin 415–16 virtue 215, 343, 417 Machiavelli advantage 405 civic virtue 402–6 common good 401 morality 404, 409–10 nature 407 pagan and Christian virtue 403 practical reason 406 prudence 408 republic 407 right, honestum 404 magnanimity 121, 331, 403 magnificence 90, 115, 120 Mandeville 51, 67, 162, 417 Manicheans 212, 217–18, 222 Marcion 202 martyrdom 330 Marx 125, 228 mean, doctrine of see virtue meaning v property 11 measuring craft 23, 30, 43, 50 Melanchthon moral philosophy 421 morality 422 natural law 412–13, 421 freewill 418 virtue 417 will 418 memory 138, 154 mercy 385 merit 343, 352, 366, 419–20 method 10, 19, 67, 144, 150, 165, 176, 190, 237, 270, 278, 306, 315, 323 metriopatheia 85 Mill 9, 21–2, 95, 153 Molinism 418 Moore 43, 45 moral philosophy 67, 115, 202, 235, 411, 421 morality advantage 405–6, 409 Christian see Christianity 803 conceptions of 114 Decalogue 202–3, 214, 395 eudaemonism 64, 114, 162 exceptions to 409 friendship 128 God 11, 204–5, 306–7, 314, 398 happiness 279, 282–3, 363 impartiality 129, 204, 368 justice 397 law 204, 214, 302 magnanimity 121 natural law 226, 313, 407, 421 naturalism 113–14, 417 obligation 114 perfection 208 pleasure 153 positive v non-positive 395 Prichard v Plato 58 reductive account 237 republic 407 responsibility 90, 102, 368, 398 self-interest 64, 129 sin 208 virtue 12, 113–14, 122, 410 voluntarism 399 nations, law of 313 natural law see law, natural natural slaves 129 naturalism Aquinas 238, 350 Aristotelian 3–4, 77–8, 80–1, 137 friendship 125 morality 113–14 objectivism 133 practical reason 87 opposition to 98 self-love 106 virtue 98 nature animals, children 144 appearances 136 character 80 community 199 convention 133, 135, 145 essence 77 freedom 238 friendship 123, 196, 337 function 78, 125, 181 good 55, 135, 137 grace 351 habit 140 happiness 65, 79, 189, 196, 200, 274, 282 indifferents 183, 186–7 justice 60, 127 morality 309, 334, 417 natural law 308, 311 Index nature (cont.) Nietzsche 309 passion 140, 192 perfection 312 pleasure 151, 154, 160 preconceptions 177 prudence 81, 85 reason 81, 312 Scepticism 139 self 166, 189 sin 349 social 81, 127, 197–9, 281, 311–12, 335, 337, 339 teleology 69, 74–5, 238 virtue 66, 81, 85, 350, 353, 395, 407 necessity see determinism neighbour see love of neighbour Nietzsche 202, 309, 404 nihilism 132 non-rational desire see desire and passion objective see Stoics objectivism 133, 135 obligation 114, 196, 303, 389, 395–7, 399 Ockham eudaemonism 387–9 freedom 388, 396 God 396–7 grace 419 happiness 387 justice 396–7 morality 395, 398 natural law 412–13 obligation 396, 399 passions 392 practical reason 393 predestination 418 prudence 393 reason 202 393, 400 virtue 215, 392, 394–5 voluntarism 386, 389–91, 399–400 will 393 Odysseus 38 Origen 202 Othello 170 ought, and obligation 303 pagan virtue see virtue particularism 115 passions action 242, 261 animals and children 167, 191 appearance 198, 219 Aquinas 244–6, 253, 261, 286–7, 289–90, 295 assent 139, 167, 174, 185, 191–2, 221, 246 Augustine 212, 220–1, 246 beliefs 140 consent 296 804 Cynics 191 deliberate fault 297 deliberation 247, 255 election 285, 289 fine 105, 107 freedom from 85, 182, 191, 220 friendship 336 God 244 good 254 happiness 361 immediate judgments 245 incontinence 295 indifferents 192 love 244 Ockham 392 Paul 254 Peripatetics 219, 222 Plato, Aristotle 246 Platonists 222 pleasure 32 Poseidonius 167 reason 105, 107, 116, 219, 221–2, 244, 246, 286 responsibility 100, 174, 193, 246, 261 Scepticism 138 self 218 sin 261, 294–5, 343 Stoics 167, 174, 191–3, 211 219–220, 246 sudden motions 253, 262, 330 virtue 85–6, 191–3, 221, 284–7, 289–90, 325, 372–3, 392 will 219, 221–2, 242, 244–5, 253–4, 261–2, 286, 290, 292, 330, 418 Paul anger 210 conscience 318 flesh, spirit 210, 212 grace 213, 420 love of neighbour 206, 210 Manicheans 222 morality 202 natural law 206, 301, 412 passions 212 sin 223, 415 virtue, pagan 232 will 254, 418 Pelagians 225, 230, 344, 419 perception 112 perfection Aquinas 274, 276–7 Christianity 207 counsels of 340 grace 210 happiness 274 361 intellectual love 276, 278, 336 justice 312, 338, 340 love of neighbour 208–11 morality 208, 211 natural law 207 Index prudence 342 rational agency 277 virtue 207, 233 Philo 206 philosopher, virtue of 61–2, 82 piety 11, 230 Plato beautiful 63 Butler 49 common beliefs 165 Cynics 28, 40–1, 53, 57 Cyrenaics 28, 32, 41, 53 definition 43–5 Demiurge 63 desire see soul Epicurus 50, 158 eudaemonism 64, 66 fine 61–2 forms 42, 44 friendship 64 function 60 God 63 good 32, 52–3, 57 good will 58 Gyges’ ring 50, 158 happiness 52, 54, 57, 60–2, 64, 96 hedonism 53 incontinence 46, 103–4 intelligence 53, 55 justice 50–2, 57, 59–64, 122, 158, 340 Kant 50 law 203 love 63 measuring craft 50 nature 55, 60, 133 objectivism 133 passions 219, 222, 246 philosopher 61–2, 82 pleasure 53, 95 practical reason 49, 94, 180, 194 Prichard 58 properties 43–4 Protagoras 133, 135 rational agency 48, 53, 55 relativism 133 scepticism 133 self 48, 54, 63, 189 self-love 63–4 self-sufficiency, 125 Socrates 15, 22, 28, 35, 41, 50, 58, 66, 132, 254 soul, parts 45–9, 55, 59, 63, 66, 100, 167, 175, 211, 275 soul 47–9 Stoics 41, 163 vice 49 virtue 43, 45, 49–50, 57, 84, 158, 215, 228–9 virtue and happiness 26, 50–1, 55 virtues, reciprocity 12, 49, 185 805 Platonists 57, 61, 212, 222, 228 pleasure animals and children 32 Aristotle 88, 95 belief 151 Callicles 56, 70 common beliefs 156 conciliation 166 Cynics 36, 38 Democritus 34 Epicurus 88, 151, 154 fine, 12, 157 good see hedonism habituation 88, 92 happiness 21, 30, 32, 146, 153 incontinence 104 kinetic and static 154 morality 153 nature 154 objects 53, 95, 145, 156 opposition to 56 passion 32 reason 53, 70, 95 self-consciousness 54, 154 time 27 varieties 70, 151, 156 virtue and vice 25, 53, 88, 95, 104, 108, 156 Plotinus 82 political science 67–9, 98 political animal see nature, social Polus 14, 23, 64 Poseidonius 167 possibilities 264 practical reason action 175 Aquinas Aristotle continence 92 craft 66, 178 deduction 319 deliberation 89, 125, 247, 251, 255, 266, 273, 359 desire 105, 257,259 dualism 9, 368 eudaemonism 377 fine 106 friendship, 125, 127, 192, 194, 196 function 76, 79 Hume 49, 92, 391 incontinence 92 instrumental, 49, 406 nature 80, 87 Ockham 393 preconceptions 176, 179 prudence 190, 375 responsibility 99–100, 103 Scotus 368, 375 self 194 Index practical reason (cont.) self-love 106 Stoics 175–9 time 32 value of 179 vice 92–3, 105, 108, 110–11 virtue 87, 94, 99, 105, 180, 316 voluntarism 406 will 21, 218, 256–7, 259, 316, 393, 406 praise responsibility 99–100 173, 263 virtue 91, 116, 181, 188 praxis see action preconceptions happiness 182 common beliefs 165 dialectic 150 Epicurus 144 Epictetus 10 fine 180 nature 177 passions 192 practical reason 176 Scepticism 165 virtue 181, 190 predestination see God pre-passion 221 Price 43, 45, 98 Prichard 58, 162 pride see arrogance production see action prohairesis see election propagation 63 properties 11, 43–4, 116 Protagoras 133, 135, 137 providence see God prudence Aquinas 320–1, 323–4, 376 Aristotle 98 conscience 317, 323, 374 Decalogue 378 deliberation 87, 89, 94, 98, 104, 320, 342 election 321 happiness 98, 104, 377 hedonism 24, 53 law 303 mean 117 means and end 87, 288 morality 409 natural law 306, 323 nature 81, 85, 353 perception 112 political science 98 practical reason 190, 375 Scotus 375–6 unity of 322, 324 330, 339, 376–7 universal 320, 339 806 virtue 82, 98, 103–4, 112, 117, 279, 288, 316, 320–1, 323–4, 327–8, 375–6, 394, 408 will 316, 393 publication 305 Pufendorf 113, 320 puzzles 2, 134 Pythagoras Quietists 162 rational agency Aquinas 237, 241, 243, 267, 312 bravery 36 conscience 319 deliberation, 251 freedom 241, 249, 267 friendship 199 happiness 31, 53, 55, 243–5 honestum 334 nature 309, 312 passions 244 pleasure 70 satisfaction 243 Scotus 369–370 social nature 312 time 24, 53 will 241, 369, 391 rationalism 87, 98, 256, 259, 316, 321, 358 Rawls reason appearance and assent 166, 175 appropriate action 184 Aquinas 286, 304 clouded 253 control by 84 desire 27 direction of fit 256 election 94 estimative capacity 245 fine 107, 180 good 181, 267 intellectualism 256 law 304 mean 85 morality 202 natural law 304 Ockham 400 passion 116, 286 pleasure 95, 153 prudence 316 self 106, 189 Socrates 27 vice 111 virtue 94, 286, 395 will 265 359, 369–70, 393, 400 see also practical reason reasons 259, 268, 275–7, 336, 359, 400 Index reciprocity of virtues see virtue reduction 44–5, 237, 270, 278, 306, 315, 323 Reformation dispensations 413 faith 419 free will 418 grace 419–20 justification 419 morality 417 natural law 228 412, 421 self-love 416 sin 415, 418 regret 109–10 Reid 58, 162, 368 relativism 115, 133 religious orders 340 republic 402 407 409 responsibility animals and children 99–100 anti-rationalism 90 appearance and assent 140, 169–70, 173–4, 175 atoms 149 causation 148, 169–70, 172–3, 221, 346, 418 character 100–1 Christianity 90 continence and incontinence 103, 106 deliberation 10, 247, 251, 255, 266, 273, 359 determinism eudaemonism 224 habituation 90 morality 90, 102 passion 91, 100, 103–4, 174, 193, 223, 373 practical reason 99, 103, praise 99–100 predestination 213 sin 334–5 Stoics 169, 173–4 virtue 90, 99, 101–2 will 91, 99–100, 239, 241–2, 245, 247, 249–50, 253–4, 256–60, 262, 265, 269, 271, 273, 285, 289–90, 292, 300, 316, 359, 367, 369–70, 418 right (ius) 338 right (honestum) see fine Ross 116 rules 112, 318 sage see Stoics Satan 341, 348, 365, 416, satisfaction 243 Sceptics, Scepticism action 139 Agrippa’s trilemma 134, 136 ancient v modern 141 Apelles 131 appearances 131–2, 134, 137, 139–40, 144 175 Arcesilaus 132 Aristotle 4, 133–5, 137 807 assent 166 belief 138–42 Cyrenaics 32, 34, 145 deliberation 141 Democritus 132 dogmatism 138 Epicurus 130 equipollence 131, 134, 136 foundationallsm and holism 134 good 135, 137 habit 140 happiness 138 Hobbes 130, 141 Hume 141 inquiry 131 memory 138 nature 133, 139 objectivism 133 passion 48, 138–9 Plato 132 -3 pleasure 140 preconceptions 165 Protagoras 133, 135 puzzles 134 relativism 133 Socrates 132 Stoics, 142 suspension of judgment 138 tranquillity 131, 138–9 Schopenhauer 58, 162, 391 Scotus Aquinas 357–8, 376 Aristotle, 357 Augustine 216 Clarke 98 conscience 374 consonance 382 Decalogue 378 deliberation 359 divine commands 379–80 eudaemonism 162, 241, 360–3, 365, 367, 377 freedom and determinism 362, 364, 366, 371, 384 God 381, 384–5 happiness 361, 363 intellect, intellectualism 373, 376 justice 364, 381, 384 natural law 378–80, 382–3 passion 372–3 practical reason 368, 375 predestination 418 prudence 375–7 rational agency 369, 370 self-love 365–416–17 sin 365–6 virtue 215, 372–3, 392 virtues, reciprocity 375, 394 Index Scotus (cont.) voluntarism 358, 367, 371, 390–1, 399 will 359, 361, 363–4, 369–70, 372–3 selection see Stoics self conception of 48 continuing 33, 54, 63, 69, 110, 154, 166, 176–7 friendship 123, 193–4, 196, 336 love 63 passion 218 pleasure 54 virtue 106, 189 will 217 self-interest, self-love Aquinas 341 Aristotle 106 Augustine 234 Butler 49 common good 106 conciliation 176 duties to self 313 egoism 69, 73, 123 eudaemonism 162, 365 fine 106, 116 friendship 81, 124 good of others 64 God 216, 234, 341 love of neighbour 416 morality 64 nature 106, 166 Plato 63 practical reason 105–6 Satan 341 Scotus 365 sin 341, 365 vice 109 virtue 341 417 self-movers 243 self-sufficiency adaptation 158 Cynics 25, 143 friendship 125 happiness 25, 81–2, 125 virtue 36 senses 32, 34, 44, 144–5 sentimentalism 111, 288 Sidgwick aesthetic intuitionism 115 eudaemonism 58, 73 explanation 67 Green history of ethics 2, pleasure 53 practical reason 9, 368 prudence 22 self-interest 64 Socratic method 808 virtue 116 silencing 86 Simonides 45 sin Aquinas 292, 294–5, 341, 344–5, 347–9, 355 arrogance 224, 231, 233, 341 causes 346 consent 223, 287 continence and incontinence 295 deliberate fault 297 eudaemonism 223 365 freedom 223, 343, 346–7, 366, 418 God 345, 347, 396 grace 420 honestum 417 ignorance 294 justification 208–9, 351–2, 419 Luther 343 Manicheans 222 morality 211 nature 349, 417 original 308, 348–9, 415 passion 261, 295 perfection 208 philosophical and theological 235, 292 Plato 217 predestination 345, 418 responsibility 344–5 Satan 341 Scotus 365–6 self-love 341, 365, 417 venial v mortal 297 vice 292, 298–9 virtue 234, 298–9, 341, 350, 355–6 voluntarism 217 will 292, 418 Sirach 213, 217 Smith 182, 186, 201 social nature see nature Socrates Achilles 12 appearances 132 Arginusae 12, 17 Aristotle 42, 66 bravery 12, 22, 24, 36 common beliefs 12, 21 Cynics 20, 35–6, 38–9, 70, 161 Cyrenaics 28 definitions 9–11, 13, 19, 43–5 Democritus 143 desire 27 dualism of practical reason Epictetus 10 Epicurus 9, 22 eudaemonism 17, 23, 27 existentialism 20, 39–40 fine 9, 12, 17, 181 Index fortune 15, 38 goods, external 37, 52 happiness 9, 13–15, 17, 25, 36, 48, 125, 151, 154, 181 hedonism 21–4, 27, 29, 36, 54, 160 Hegel 161 incontinence 21, 27, 38, 46, 103–4, 295 inquiry 10, 12 justice 12 17–19, 22–3, 52 knowledge 27, 269 Leon 12, 17 measuring craft 22–4, 30, 43, 50, 144 method 2, 10, 19, 67 paradoxes 9, 15, 163 passions 27, 212, 254 piety 11 Plato 50, 52, 58 pleasure 21, 25, 27 practical reason 66, 218 properties 43 prudence 22, 24, 316 reason 27 reciprocity and unity of virtues 12, 21, 27 scepticism 132 soul 19, 26, 49 sources for Stoics 9, 27, 121, 163 temperance 13, 22, 36 Thirty 12 time 22 virtue 9, 12, 14–15, 17–22, 25–7, 36, 43, 50–1, 79, 85, 185 voluntarism 11 voluntary 27 wisdom 14–16, 22, 37 Wittgenstein 10 Socratics, incomplete 28, 161 soul appetitive part 47, 97, 105 division 45, 47–9, 66, 74, 76, 81–2, 91, 94–5, 97–8, 100, 103–5, 119, 167, 275 function 74 health 19 justice 51, 59, 63–4 non-rational parts 48–9, 59, 82, 84, 91–2, 94–5, 98, 103–5, 119, 167, 244–5 passions see passions rational part 9, 47–9, 59, 63, 76, 81, 84, 97, 175, 275 spirited part 47 virtue 25–6, 49, 86 Speusippus 66 spirit v flesh 210, 212, 218 static see pleasure Stoics Achilles 165 action 139, 142, 175, 190, 200 Agamemnon 165 animals and children 166–7, 191 809 appearances 139, 166, 175, 192, 219 appropriate action 178, 182, 184–5 Aquinas 190, 246 Aristotle 163–4, 167, 169, 180, 184–5, 189–94, 219 assent 141, 166–8, 170, 173–4, 188, 252 Augustine 212, 220, 246 Carneades 163 causation 148, 169, 172, 221 common beliefs 165, 190 community 197–9 conciliation 166, 176, 179, 181, 194 craft 184, 188 Cynics 35, 40, 161, 163 deliberation 178 detachment 191 determinism SEE responsibility dialectic 164 end see objective eudaemonism 66, 162, 166, 224 fate 169, 171 fine, honestum 157, 181, 332–3 fortune 190 foundationalism, holism 134 free will see responsibility friendship 194–6, 200–1, 227 happiness 26, 181–2 184, 188–90, 196, 227, 283 hedonism, 166 honestum see fine impartiality 195 incontinence 167 indifferents 40, 182–3, 186–7, 190, 192, 197 justice 165 194 kathˆkon see appropriate action e law 211 morality 404 natural law 206, 301 naturalism 77 nature 164, 166, 177, 186–7, 189, 196, 308 objective v end 166, 178–9, 184, 186–7, 189–90, 200 passion, freedom from 85, 182, 191, 220 passions 139, 167, 174, 185, 191–3, 198, 211–12, 219–220, 222, 246, 261, 289 perfectionism 233 Peripatetics 219 Plato 41, 197 pleasure 166 political community 197–9 Poseidonius 167 practical reason 175–80, 190, 194, 218 praise 181 preconceptions 165, 176, 190 pre-passion 221 providence 164 reason 180–1, 184 responsibility 146–8, 169, 172–4 213 sage 184, 191–3, 198, 211, 233 Sceptics 130 Index Stoics (cont.) selection 183, 187 self 166 176, 189 Socrates 9, 15, 27,121, 161, 163, 167, 254, 269 Suarez 98 success 185, 190 suicide 186, 227 sympathy 192 theology 164 tranquillity 139, 182 value 183 virtue 12, 14, 57,162, 180–1, 185, 187–90, 192–4, 197, 201, 215, 227, 229, 231, 328, 404–5, 408 will 218–19 wisdom 16 yielding 168 Suarez 3, 77, 98, 334, 399, 414, 417 success 184–5, 187–8, 190 sudden motions 253, 262 suicide 186, 227 superbia see arrogance suspension of judgment 131, 136, 138, 142 synderesis see conscience teleological explanation 74–5, 238 teleological moral theory 3, 69, 301, 315 temperance 13, 22, 36, 45, 119, 157, 331, 334 Tempier 358, 362 theology 164, 197, 235, 411 theoretical study 82, 280, 282–3 Thrasymachus 45, 61, 66, 117, 123 time 22, 24, 30–2, 53, 63, 69 tranquillity (ataraxia) 131, 138–9, 154–5, 158, 182 Trent, Council of 417–20 Trollope 340 two-level theories 51 ultimate end see good, final universal conscience see conscience utilitarianism 6, 112, 129 utility 338 value 107, 183, 187 Vasquez 414 vice appetite 105 Aquinas 262, 292, 299 Aristotle 84, 93, 105, 108–11 common good 119 conscience 319 election 84, 93, 105, 109, 298 function 84 incontinence 109 Plato 49 pleasure 104, 108 practical reason 93, 105, 108, 110–11 810 prudence 341 reason 84, 93, 111 regret 109–10 self-love 109 sin 292, 298–9 will 262 virtue, virtues acquired v infused 353–5 action 87, 112, 190, 229 advantage 405 aesthetic aspects 115–16, 120–1 animals and children 13 appropriate action 178, 184–5 Aquinas 262, 284, 286–7, 290, 293, 298, 300, 316, 321, 341–2 Aristotle 83–111 arrogance 233 assent 188 capacities 285 cardinal 9, 19–20, 25, 36, 40, 49, 180, 229, 327–31 character v intellect 86, 97–8, 230, 291 charity 356 Christian 90, 121, 215, 403 civic 402–6 common beliefs 81, 112, 190 common good 106, 112 401 connexions between 185 consent 287 consequences 50 continence 85, 293 counterfactuals 50 craft 14, 20, 26, 188 Cynics, 85 definitions 43 deliberation 96, 178 election 66, 89, 94, 96, 105, 111, 293, 320, 328, 375 fine, honestum freewill 90, 372 function 76, 81, 99, 122 grace 420 habituation 85, 87, 92, 102 happiness 14–15, 17–19, 25–6 , 36–7, 39, 50–2, 55, 57–8, 70, 79, 82, 181, 188–90, 196, 227, 230, 356, hedonism 22, 31, 36, 157, 160 heroic 340 Hume 90 infused see acquired integrity, 20 intellectual 373 intellectualism 373 Kant 12, 17, 68, 117, 335, 339 knowledge 12, 21, 27, 269 law 211, 310 Luther 343 mean 85, 89, 94, 113, 117 measuring craft 22 merit 343 Index moral 12 113–14, 122, 282–3, 291, 410 motives 58 natural law 228, 313 naturalism, nature 66, 85, 98, 106, 113, 186, 189, 353, 407 Ockham 392, 394 other-regarding 61, 63–4, 117, 158, 194, 201, 204, 290 pagan 215, 223, 226, 228, 230–3, 331, 356, 403, 417 particularism 115 passions 86, 113, 185, 192–3, 221, 284–7, 289–90, 372–3, 392 perfection 207 philosopher 82 Plato 26, 49, 57, 84, 228 pleasure 25, 53, 88, 95, 156–7 praise 91, 116 preconceptions 190 prudence 103–4, 112, 288, 316, 320–1, 341–2, 393, 408 purifying 61 rationalism and anti-rationalism 87–8, 90, 321 reason 84, 87, 94, 99, 103, 105, 178, 180, 184, 316, 393, 395 reciprocity 12, 117, 185, 325–6 responsibility 90, 99, 101–2, 284, 353, 372 Scotus 372–3 self- and other-regarding 90, 115, 117, 158, 194, 401 self-love 90, 115, 189, 341, 416–17 self-sufficiency 36 sentimentalism 111, 288 Sidgwick 116 sin 234, 298–9, 341, 350, 355, 415 Socrates 14, 15, 17, 19–20, 22, 85 soul 25–6, 49, 81, 94–5, 98 Stoics 162, 180–1, 185, 187–9, 215 success 185, 187, 190 teleological conception 66 Trollope 340 value of 82, 157, 179, 230 will 229, 262, 290, 299–300, 316, 372–3, 392, 418 virtues, reciprocity and unity Aquinas 12, 325–6, 328, 394 common good 339 election 328 eudaemonism 377 justice 117 magnanimity and humility 331 Plato 12 prudence 327, 375–6 remedial conception of virtue 326 Socrates 12 Stoics 12 185 temperance 331 unity v reciprocity 12, 21, 27, 49 voluntarism Augustine 218 conscience 374 811 Cudworth 399 eudaemonism 224, 362, 367 God 381, 385, 399–400 intellectualism 256, 259, 358, 367, 371 justice 384, 397 natural law 380, 412, 414 Ockham 396, 389–91, 399–400 reason 400, 406 Scotus 358, 367, 371, 390–1, 399 sin 217 Socrates 11 will 358, 367, 389, 391 voluntary action 261 animals children 91, 260 anti-rationalism 91 Aquinas 241, 260–1, 263 Aristotle 91, 100 assent 166 freewill 241, 263 hekousion 90 incontinence 27 passion 261 reason 100, 241 responsibility 90, 99–100 sin 261 Socrates 27 will 241 260, 262 Vulgate Aquinas 332 Westminster Confession 417 will affections 363 aiming 250 Aquinas 241–2, 247, 253, 256–60, 262, 265, 269, 271, 285, 290, 316 Aristotle 97 Augustine 217–8, 221, 223–4, 229–30 capacity 369–70 character 285 command 257 conscience 374 consent 223, 261 Damascene 265 deliberation 247, 250, 258, 273 desire 242, 259, 262 direction of fit 256 election 300 eudaemonism 223, 360, 362, 367 final good 217, 239, 247, 271, 361 free judgment 247 freedom 90, 225, 262, 265 freewill 90, 225, 262, 265, 269, 300, 361, 370 God 307 immediate judgments 245 incontinence 295 Index will (cont.) intellect 258–9, 269, 373 justice 335, 338, 364 Manicheans 218, 222 Ockham 393 passion 218–19, 221–2, 244–5, 253–4, 284, 286, 290, 292, 296, 318, 372–3, 418 Paul 254 Peripatetics 219 permissive role 273 Plato 217 prudence 316, 393 reason 218, 256–7, 259, 316, 359, 369, 393 responsibility Scotus 359, 369, 372–3 812 sin 298, 366 Stoics 219 sudden motions 262 vice 262 virtue 229–30, 262, 290, 299, 316, 372–3, 392, 394 voluntary action 241, 260, 262 wish 97 William de la Mare 358 wish 89, 97 Wittgenstein 10 yielding 139, 167–8, 175, 191 Zeno, and Crates 161 ... Self-Love, Reason, and the Fine xv 15 3 15 4 15 5 15 7 15 8 16 0 16 1 16 2 16 4 16 5 16 6 16 7 16 8 17 1 17 3 17 5 17 7 17 9 18 1 18 3 18 3 18 5 18 7 18 9 Contents 10 7 10 8 10 9 11 0 11 1 How is the Fine Connected with... The Vicious Person’s Regret The Instability of the Vicious Person Vice, Reason, and Nature Aristotle: Virtue and Morality 11 2 11 3 11 4 11 5 11 6 11 7 11 8 11 9 12 0 12 1 12 2 12 3 12 4 12 5 12 6 12 7 12 8 12 9... of Morality 10 The Sceptics 13 0 13 1 13 2 13 3 13 4 13 5 13 6 13 7 13 8 13 9 14 0 14 1 14 2 19 0 19 2 19 2 19 4 19 6 19 8 200 202 204 206 208 210 210 212 213 215 216 218 220 224 226 227 230 233 Scepticism in the