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Table of Contents
Biomass Utilization, Limits of
Biomass Utilization, Limits of
Glossary
Biomass Resources
World Biomass
United States Biomass
United States Agricultural and Forest Products and Biofuels
Conversion of Biomass Resources
Direct Heating
Health Effects
Ethanol Production
Biogas
Biogas for Smallholders
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Vegetable Oil
Electricity
Biomass and the Environment
Soil Erosion
Forest Land Erosion
Nutrient Losses and Water Pollution
Water Use
Air Pollution
Social and Economic Impacts
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
See also the Following Articles
References
Biomass, Bioengineering of
Biomass, Bioengineering of
Glossary
Background
Characteristics of Biomass
Production of Biomass
Natural Inputs to Biomass Production
Potential and Actual Yields of Biomass
Comparison of Biomass and Petroleum
Cost of Biomass versus Fossil Feedstocks
Major Types of Biomass: Their Production and Composition
Sugar Crops
Starch Crops
Plant Oil and Protein Crops
Tree and Fiber Crops
Forage and Grass Crops
Biotechnology and Biomass Production
Modify Biomass Composition for Easier Processing
Enhance Biomass Yields and Reduce Inputs
New Products
Uses of Biomass
Current Uses
Food/Feed Consumption and World Protein/Calorie Demand
Animal Feeds
Existing Fuels/Chemicals/Materials Uses of Biomass
New and Developing Uses of Biomass
New Chemicals and Materials Uses
New Liquid Fuels from Biomass
Land Requirements for Fuel Production
Cost of Liquid Fuel Production from Biomass
Bioprocessing of Biomass
Historical Lessons from the Chemical and Petroleum Processing Industries
Importance of Raw Material and Processing Costs for Commodities
Need for Complete Raw Material Utilization
Incremental Process Improvement
Innovation and Risk
Current Status of Biomass Processing
Priorities for Developing Lignocellulose Biorefineries
Enhancing Yield and Feedstock Modification
New Technologies Needed for Low Cost Lignocellulose Conversion
Generic Biomass Processing Technologies
Potential and Limitations of Biomass and Biobased Industrial Products
Potential Benefits
Potential Limitations of Biomass and Biobased Industrial Products
Achieving the Benefits of Biobased Products
See also the Following Articles
References
Biomaterials, Synthetic Synthesis, Fabrication, and Applications
Biomaterials, Synthetic Synthesis, Fabrication, and Applications
Glossary
Introduction to Medical Biomaterials
Aspects of the Structural Chemistry of Natural Materials Used in the Human Body
Natural Polymers
Natural Pliant Composites
Natural Mineralized Tissues, Bone, Cartilage, and Enamel
General Repair Mechanisms and Biocompatibility
Materials of Construction
Synthetic Polymers
Synthesis
Polymer Modification
Biodegradable Polymers
Polymers from Natural Sources
Metals
Ceramics
Conventional Ceramics
Bioactive Ceramics
Toward Resorbable Implants
Composites
Composites Based on HAP
Bone Graft Materials
The Way Forward, Tissue Engineering
Prevention of Unwanted Tissue Interactions
Directing Tissue Formation
Large-Scale Culture of Therapeutic Cells
Future Directions
See also the Following Articles
References
Biomineralization and Biomimetic Materials
Biomineralization and Biomimetic Materials
Glossary
Structural Biological Materials
Structural Proteins
Structural Polysaccharides
Mineralized Tissues
Silica
Carbonate
Hydroxyapatite
Biological and Synthetic Processing
The Process of Biomineralization
Biomimetic Materials
Polymers
Surfactants and Self-Assembly
Inorganic Particle Formation
Tough-Layered Structures
Biomimetic Processing Methods
Cell Adhesion and Tissue Engineering
Applications of Biomimetic Materials
See also the Following Articles
References
Bioreactors
Bioreactors
Glossary
Introduction
Bioreactor Systems
Submerged Culture
Mechanically Stirred Tank Bioreactors
Bubble Columns
Airlift Bioreactors
Fluidized Beds
Packed Bed Bioreactors
Photobioreactors
Other Bioreactor Configurations
Solid-State Culture
Bioreactors for Immobilized Enzymes and Cells
Considerations for Bioreactor Design
General Features
Mixing, Heat, and Mass Transfer
Mixing and Shear Effects
Oxygen Supply and Carbon Dioxide Removal
Heat Removal and Temperature Control
Monoseptic Operation, Cleaning, Sterilization
Operational Modes of Bioreactors
Medium Composition
Kinetics, Productivity, and Bioreactors
Cell Growth
Productivity
Enzyme Kinetics
Concluding Remarks
See also the Following Articles
References
Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Glossary
Introduction
Fundamental Principles of Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Optical Fibers
Basic Characteristics
Optical Fiber Types
Optical Fiber Configurations
Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensor Design and Instrumentation
Light Sources
Optical Signal Detectors
Optical Phenomena Employed for Sensing in Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Absorption
Fluorescence
Time-Resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Fluorescence Energy Transfer
Raman Spectroscopy
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
Evanescent Wave Spectroscopy
Sensing Schemes for Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Intrinsic Sensing Mechanism—Direct Spectroscopy
Liquid-Phase Sensing
Gas-Phase Sensing
Extrinsic Sensing Mechanism—Indicator Chemistry
Chemical Sensing Reagent—Optrodes
pH sensing
Gas and vapor sensing
Ion sensing
Immobilization Techniques
Adsorption/electrostatic immobilization
Entrapment immobilization
Covalent immobilization
Biological Sensing Materials (Fiber-Optic Based Biosensors)
Biocatalysts as the recognition element in fiberoptic biosensor
Bioaffinity as the recognition mechanism in fiber-optic biosensors
Applications of Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Clinical Applications
Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors for in Vivo Analysis
Clinical Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors for in Situ Sample Analysis
Environmental Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors
Industrial and Bioprocess Control Applications
Recent Developments
Multianalyte Sensing
Distributed Chemical Sensing
Imaging and Chemical Sensing
Conclusions
See also the Following Articles
References
Hybridomas, Genetic Engineering of
Hybridomas, Genetic Engineering of
Glossary
Introduction: the Nature of Antibodies
The Molecular Structure of Antibodies
Glycosylation of Antibodies
Production of Monoclonal Antibodies
Immunization in Vivo
Immunization in Vitro
The Development of Cell Hybridization
Methods of Cell Fusion
Cell Fusion to Immortalize Lymphocytes
Selectable Gene Markers for Cell Selection
Clonal Selection of Mab-Secreting Hybridomas
Assay of Monoclonal Antibodies
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
Affinity Binding
Human Monoclonal Antibodies
The Source of Antibody-Secreting Lymphocytes
Immortalization and Chromosome Instability
Antibody Secretion of Human Parental Fusion Partners
Recombinant Antibodies
Recombinant Antibody Fragments
Therapeutic Antibodies
Antibodies from Plants
Humanized Antibodies from Transgenic Mice
The Importance of Glycosylation to Therapeutic Antibodies
Large-Scale Production of Monoclonal Antibodies from Hybridomas
In Vivo (Ascites) Production of Monoclonal Antibodies (Mabs)
In Vitro Production
Stirred-Tank Bioreactor
The Airlift Fermenter
The Control of Culture Parameters
Agitation
Culture pH
Oxygen
Serum and Serum-Free Medium for Antibody Production from Hybridomas
Serum-Free Media
Conclusions
See also the Following Articles
References
Image-Guided Surgery
Image-Guided Surgery
Glossary
Image-Guidance Methods and Technologies
Intraoperative Imaging
Intraoperative Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Image-Guided Neurosurgery
Thermal Ablations
Interstitial Laser Therapy
Focused Ultrasound Surgery
Cryoablation
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
See also the Following Articles
References
Mammalian Cell Culture
Mammalian Cell Culture
Glossary
Introduction
The Cell
Cell Types
Cell Lines
Hybrid Cell Lines
Hybridomas
Heterokayons
Recombinant Cell Lines
Nonviral DNA Transfer Vehicles for Mammalian Cells
Transfer of Genes of Interest into Mammalian Cells
Amplification of Transferred DNA Through Methotrexate Selection
Transient DNA Transfer into Mammalian Cells for Rapid Protein Synthesis
The Culture System
Reactors for Anchorage-Dependent Cells
Basic Culture Units
Multisurface Plate Units
High-Volume Units
Glass bead culture:
Microcarrier culture:
Bioreactors for Suspension Cells
Laboratory Scale
Scale-Up
Air-lift fermenter:
Celligen fermenter:
Large-Scale Bioreactors
High-Cell-Density Bioreactors
Hollow-Fiber Bioreactors
Spin Filters
Microporous Microcarriers
The Culture Production Process
Cell Products
Viral Vaccines
Antibodies
Immunoregulators
Recombinant Products
Cell and Tissue Therapy
Cell Therapy
Gene Therapy
Other Products
Applications of Cell Culture
Conclusion
See also the Following Articles
References
Metabolic Engineering
Metabolic Engineering
Glossary
Background
Introduction
Molecular Biology Tools
Metabolic Network Analysis
Metabolic Control Analysis
Tools from Functional Genomics
Applications of Metabolic Engineering
Heterologous Protein Production
Extension of Substrate Range
Pathways Leading to New Products
Pathways for Degradation of Xenobiotics
Engineering of Cellular Physiology for Process Improvement
Elimination of By-Product Formation
Improvement of Yield or Productivity
Future Directions
Acknowledgment
See also the Following Articles
References
Microanalytical Assays
Microanalytical Assays
Glossary
Microfabrication
Biosensors
Biological Recognition Elements
Immobilization
Detector Elements
Optically Based Biosensors
Sensor Dynamics
Other Detectors
See also the Following Articles
References
Optical Fiber Techniques for Medical Applications
Optical Fiber Techniques for Medical Applications
Glossary
Introduction
Optical Fibers
Properties of Optical Fibers
Total lnternal Reflection
Optical Fibers
Transmission in Optical Fibers
Material and Methods of Fabrication of Optical Fibers
Optical Fibers Made of Silica Glass
Special Optical Fibers
Lasers for Fiberoptic Medical Systems
Medical Lasers
The Use of Various Lasers in Medicine
Lasers and Fibers
Fiberoptic Endoscopes
Light Guides for Illumination
Light Sources
Light Guides (Nonordered Bundles)
Ordered Bundles for Image Transmission
Fabrication of Fiberoptic Bundles
Fiberscopes and Endoscopes
Clinical Applications of Endoscopes
Standard Endoscopes
Thin and Ultrathin Endoscopes
Fiberoptic Medical Diagnostics
Diagnostic Systems
Direct Sensors
Physical Sensors
Chemical Sensors
Indirect Sensors
Physical Sensors
Chemical Sensors
Integrated Fiberoptic Systems
Power Fibers for Medical Systems
Laser Catheters
Laser Endoscopes
Robotic Systems
Laser–Fiberoptic Systems and their Clinical Applications
Gastroenterology
Urology
Gynecology
Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy
Cardiovascular and Heart Surgery
Laser Angioplasty Using Laser Catheters
Transmyocardial Revascularization
Closed Chest Endoscopic Surgery on a Beating Heart
Cancer Diagnoses and Photochemotherapy
Novel Fiberoptic Medical Systems
Time Resolved Phenomena
Optical Coherent Tomography
Outlook
See also the Following Articles
References
Pharmaceuticals, Controlled Release of
Pharmaceuticals, Controlled Release of
Glossary
Introduction/History
Methods of Achieving Controlled Release
Membrane Diffusion-Controlled Systems
Biodegradable Systems
Osmotic Systems
Important Controlled Release Products
Transdermal Systems
Nasal Spray/Inhalers
Targeted Drug Delivery
Implants
Future Directions
See also the following Articles
References
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics
Glossary
Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts
Half-Life
Volume of Distribution
Bioavailability
Mechanisms of Transport
Drug Absorption
Gastrointestinal Absorption
Transdermal, Subcutaneous, Intramuscular Routes of Absorption
Intraperitoneal Administration
Inhalation
Mathematical Approaches to the Description of Absorption and Bioavailability
Drug Distribution
Volume of Distribution
Binding
Drug Metabolism and Elimination
Renal Excretion
Hepatic Metabolism
Extrahepatic Metabolism
Biliary Excretion
Pharmacokinetic Variability
Pharmacokinetic Changes in the Elderly
Transplacental Transfer of Drugs
Renal Failure
Removal of Drugs by Dialysis
Patients with Liver Disease
Congestive Heart Failure Congestive Heart Failure Includes Cardiac
Patients with Burns
Quantitative Approaches to Pharmacokinetic Modeling
Compartmental Approaches
Physiologic Pharmacokinetic Models
Noncompartmental Model Approaches
See also the Following Articles
References
Separation and Purification of Biochemicals
Separation and Purification of Biochemicals
Glossary
Principles Of Chromatographic Separations
Basic Parameters
Parameters of the Chromatogram
Retention
Column Efficiency and Zone Width
Peak Asymmetry
Selectivity
Resolution
Separation by Stationary Phase Interaction
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
Reversed-Phase Chromatography
Hydroxyapatite Chromatography
Separation by Affinity (Biospecific Interactions)
Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography
Chiral Chromatography
Separation by Size
Process Design In Chromatography
The Different Modes of Chromatography
Gradient and Isocratic Elution Chromatography
Frontal Chromatography
Displacement Chromatography
Scale-Up Considerations
Processes for Preparative Chromatography
Expanded (Fluidized) Bed Chromatography
Radial Chromatography
Preparative-Continuous Annular Chromatography
Simulated Moving Bed
Stationary Phases For Biochromatography
Particle-Based Stationary Phases
Conventional Porous Particles
Particles with Reduced Mass Transfer Limitation
Continuous Stationary Phases
Membranes
Monoliths
See also the Following Articles
References
Tissue Engineering
Tissue Engineering
Glossary
A Brief History Of Tissue Engineering
Fundamentals Of Tissue Engineering
Biomaterial Design
Materials Used in Tissue Engineering
Optimization of Surface Chemistry
Fabrication of Porous Matrices
Cell Engineering
Growth Factors, Hormones, and Signal Transduction
Genetic Engineering
Metabolic Engineering
Effects of Mechanical Forces on Cells and Tissues
Transport Phenomena in Tissue Engineering
Cell Migration
Metabolite Transport
Bioreactor Technologies
Microcarrier-based systems.
Hollow-fiber systems.
Rotating vessel wall bioreactor.
Morphogenesis of Engineered Tissues
Summary
Applications Of Tissue
Engineering
Connective Tissues
In Vitro Construction of Connective Tissues
In Vivo Regeneration Using Guidance Templates
Epithelial and Connective Tissue Composites
Epithelia and Endothelia
Secretory and Transport Functions of Epithelial and Endothelial Cells
Tissue Constructs Using Epithelial Cells
Epithelial and Connective Tissue Composites
Endocrine Tissues
Future Prospects For
Tissue Engineering
See also the Following Articles
References
Toxicology in Forensic Science
Toxicology in Forensic Science
Glossary
Applications of Forensic Toxicology
Specimens
Chain of Custody
What Chemicals should be Targeted?
Techniques Used
Initial Tests and Confirmation
Quality Assurance and Validation
Reports
Interpretation of Toxicological Results
Artefacts in Analysis
Stability of Drugs
Bioconversion
Redistribution
Court Testimony and Expertise
See also the Following Articles
References
Nội dung
[...]... t) of topsoil This soil formation rate is the equivalent of about 1 t/ha/yr Forest soil re-formation is slower than in agriculture and is estimated to take more than 1000 years to produce 2.5 cm of soil The adverse effect of soil erosion is the gradual loss of productivity and eventually the abandonment of the land for crop production P1: FJU Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceand Technology. .. annual production of biomass FIGURE 3 World food and forage production (millions of tons) P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceandTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33 148 for these many food and feed uses, as well as available crop and forestry residues C Biotechnologyand Biomass Production 1 Modify Biomass Composition for Easier Processing Plant breeding and/ or molecular... Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceandTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33 153 Biomass, Bioengineering of toxicity, but by high oxygen demands if processed in conventional sewage treatment facilities Solid wastes from biomass processing could occupy large volumes of landfill space, and would tend also produce high oxygen demand liquid effluents from landfills The volume of landfill space... EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceandTechnology EN002C-60 May 17, 2001 20:23 171 Biomass Utilization, Limits of as to how much biomass can be harvested as an energy source without further causing the extinction of more plants, animals, and microbes because of biomass resources on which biodiversity depends Agriculture and managed forests occupy approximately 70% of the total land area and use about 70% of the... greater than the human demand Obviously, much of the plant matter we grow is used to feed animals, not people directly However, if we so chose, we could easily feed the world’s population with an adequate, plant-based, diet using a fraction of the land now devoted to agriculture and animal husbandry (There P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysical Science andTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33... these tree and fiber crops and their residues are essentially all P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysical Science andTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33 147 Biomass, Bioengineering of lignocellulosic materials, i.e., they are composed mostly of sugar polymers and lignin 5 Forage and Grass Crops For purposes of this article, we will not distinguish between grasses and legumes, but will consider... will follow B Major Types of Biomass: Their Production and Composition 1 Sugar Crops The major sugar crops are sugar cane and sugar beets Worldwide, approximately 100 million tons per year of sugar (sucrose) are produced from sugar cane and sugar beets Most of these sugars are used ultimately in human P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysical Science andTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33... oilseeds and sugar crops 2 Animal Feeds In 1998 the United States produced about 40 million tons of beef, pork, and poultry as well as billions of dozens of eggs and tens of millions of tons of milk To generate these products, livestock and poultry consumed well over 500 million tons of feed expressed on a feeding value equivalent to corn Over half of this total feed was from forages, about two thirds of. .. chief source of fuel and materials With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, a gradual switch from biomass as the major fuel source took place, first through a transition to coal and later to petroleum and natural gas The oil P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysical Science andTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33 150 refining industry was developed over about the last 120 years and catalyzed... biomass P1: GNH 2nd Revised Pages EncyclopediaofPhysical Science andTechnology EN002G-61 May 19, 2001 19:33 151 Biomass, Bioengineering of 2 New Liquid Fuels from Biomass Total consumption of gasoline and diesel fuel in the United States is about 150 billion gallons per year Assuming an average density of these liquid fuels of six pounds per gallon, the total mass of raw material that would need to . 00, 00, 00, 00 Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN002C-64 May 19, 2001 20:39 Table of Contents (Subject Area: Biotechnology) Article Authors Pages in the Encyclopedia . Revised Pages Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN002C-60 May 17, 2001 20:23 160 Biomass Utilization, Limits of essential nutrients. This is the largest number and pro- portion of malnourished. and P1: FJU Revised Pages Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN002C-60 May 17, 2001 20:23 Biomass Utilization, Limits of 163 TABLE III Energy Inputs and Costs of Corn Production per Hectare