english grammar for toeic
Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 1 1.02 VERB FORMS 8 1.03 VERB CLASSIFICATION 8 1.03.1 Helping Verbs 8 1.03.1 HELPING VERBS DEFINITION 9 1.03.1. B. Primary helping verbs (3 verbs) 9 1.03.1. A. Modal helping verbs (10 verbs) 9 1.03.2 Main Verbs 10 1.03.2. B. Transitive and intransitive verbs 10 1.03.2. D. Linking verbs 11 1.03.2. E. Dynamic and stative verbs 11 1.03.2. A. Regular and irregular verbs 10 1.03.2. C. REGULAR VERBS 11 1.03.2. F. IRREGULAR VERBS 11 2. NOUNS 12 2.01 What are Nouns? 12 2.02 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS 14 2.02.1 COUNTABLE NOUNS 14 2.02.2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS 15 2.02.3 NOUNS THAT CAN BE COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE 15 2.03 PROPER NOUNS (NAMES) 16 2.04 USING CAPITAL LETTERS WITH PROPER NOUNS 16 2.05 PROPER NOUNS WITHOUT “THE” 16 2.06 PROPER NOUNS WITH “THE” 18 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 2 2.07 POSSESSIVE’S 19 POSSESSIVE’S 19 3. ADJECTIVES 20 3.01 DETERMINERS 20 3.01.1 DETERMINERS: A, AN OR THE? 21 DETERMINERS: A, AN OR THE? 21 3.01.2 DETERMINERS: EACH, EVERY 22 3.01.3 DETERMINERS: SOME, ANY 23 3.02 ADJECTIVE ORDER 24 3.02.1 ADJECTIVE BEFORE NOUN 24 ADJECTIVE BEFORE NOUN 25 3.02.2 ADJECTIVE AFTER VERB 25 ADJECTIVE AFTER VERB 25 3.03 COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26 3.03.1 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 26 3.03.2 USE OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES 27 3.04 SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 28 SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 29 3.04.1 FORMATION OF SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 29 3.04.2 USE OF SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES 31 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 3 4. ADVERBS 31 4.01 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY 32 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY 33 5. ENGLISH PRONOUNS 33 5.01 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 33 6. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS 34 6.01 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 34 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 35 6.02 ENGLISH PREPOSITION RULE 36 ENGLISH PREPOSITION RULE 37 6.03 PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, IN, ON 37 PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, IN, ON 37 6.04 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: AT, IN, ON 39 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: AT, IN, ON 39 7. CONJUNCTIONS 40 7.01 CONJUNCTIONS DEFINITION 40 7.01.2 Form 41 7.01.1 Function 40 7.01.3 Position 41 7.02 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 41 7.03 SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 42 8. INTERJECTIONS 43 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 4 9.00 Table of English Tenses 45 Before you begin the verb tense lessons, it is extremely important to understand that NOT all English verbs are the same. English verbs are divided into three groups: 46 10.00 TENSES 48 10.01 Simple Present (Present Simple) – Introduction 50 STRUCTURE Subject +verb(s, es) +object / complement 50 10.01.1 Simple Present - Use 51 10.01.2 Simple Present - Form 52 be 52 have 53 All other verbs 53 10.02 Simple Present - Exceptions in Spelling 54 11.00 Present Progressive - Introduction 54 11.01 Present Progressive - Use 55 11.02 Present Progressive - Form 56 11.03 Present Progressive - Exceptions in Spelling 56 11.04 Present Progressive - Short Forms 57 11.05 Present Progressive - Signal Words 57 12.0 Present Perfect Simple 58 STRUCTURE:- Subject + [HAS / HAVE] + [past participle] + Object / Complement 58 12.01 Form of Present Perfect 58 12.03 Use of Present Perfect 58 12.04 Signal Words of Present Perfect 59 13.00 Present Perfect Progressive 59 STRUCTURE: Subject + [HAS / HAVE] + [BEEN] + [VERB+ing] Object / complement 59 13.01 Form of Present Perfect Progressive 59 13.03 Use of Present Perfect Progressive 60 13.04 Signal Words of Present Perfect Progressive 60 14.00 Simple Past (Past Simple) 60 STRUCTURE: Subject + 2 nd Form of the Verb + Object / complement. 60 14.01 Form of Simple Past 60 14.03 Use of Simple Past 61 14.04 Signal Words of Simple Past 61 15.00 Past Progressive (Past Continuous) 61 STRUCTURE:- Subject + [WAS / WERE] + [VERB+ing] + Object / complement. 61 15.01 Form 61 15.03 Use of Past Progressive 62 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 5 15.04 Signal Words of Past Progressive 62 15.05 Form of Past Perfect Simple 62 15.07 Use of Past Perfect 63 15.08 Signal Words 63 16.00 Past Perfect Progressive (Past Perfect Continuous) 63 Structure: Subject + Had + Been + Verb ing + Object 63 16.01 Form 63 16.02 Use 63 16.02 signal words 64 17.00 Future I Simple will 64 17.01 Form of will Future 64 17.02 Use of will Future 64 17.03 Signal Words 64 17.04 Future I Simple going to 64 17.04.1 Form of going to Future 64 17.04.2 Use of going to Future 65 17.05 Signal Words 65 18.00 Future I Progressive (Future I Continuous) 65 18.01 Form 65 18.02 Use 65 18.03 Signal Words 65 18.04. Future II Simple 65 18.04.1 Form 65 18.04.02 Use 66 18.04.03 Signal Words 66 19.00 Future II Progressive (Future II Continuous) 66 19.01 Form 66 19.02 Use 66 19.03 Signal Words 66 20.01 PRESENT CONDITIONAL: 66 21.00 PAST CONDITIONAL: 68 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 6 Thursday, July 27, 2006 1.00 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY: - 1.01. IMPORTANCE: - English is generally acknowledged to be the world’s most important language. It is perhaps worth (value) glancing / take a quick look briefly at the basis for that evaluation. There are, after all, thousands of different languages in the world, and each will seem uniquely important to those who speak it as their native language, the language they acquired / obtain at their mother’s knee. But there are more objective standards of relative importance. 1. One criterion (principle) is the number of speakers of the language. 2. The second is the extent (degree / size) to which a language is geographically dispersed: (discrete / isolated) in how many continents and countries is it used or is knowledge of it necessary? 3. The third one is its functional load: how extensive (wide) is the range of purposes for which it is used? 4. In particular, to what extent is it the medium for highly valued cultural manifestations (sign / appearance) such as a science or a literature? 5. The fifth one is the economic and political influence (power / effect) of the native speakers of the language. 1.02. THE USE OF ENGLISH: - As we know that English is the worlds most widely used language. A distinction (difference) is often made that depends on how the language is learned: as a native language (or mother tongue), acquired when that speaker is a young child (generally in the home), or as a non-native language, acquired at some subsequent period. (following periods). Overlapping with this distinction is that between its use as a first language, the primary (first, basic) language of the speaker, and as an additional language. 1.03. THE INTERNATIONAL CHARACTER OF ENGLISH: - English is pre-eminently (most excellent) the most international of languages. Though the name of the language may at once remind us of England, or we may associate (connect / unite) the language with the united states, one of the world’s superpowers, English caries less implications of political or cultural specificity than any other living tongue, such as Spanish and French being also notable in this respect. 1.04. THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH: - A single international language has long been thought to be the ideal for international communication. Artificially (unnaturally) constructed languages have never acquired sufficiently large numbers of supporters, although in principle such languages have the clear advantage that they put all learners on the same footing (all are non native speakers), thereby not giving an advantage to speakers of any particular language. During the last few decades English has come closest to being the single international language, having achieved a greater world spread than any other language in recorded history. Yet in recent years doubts have arisen whether it will ever reach the ideal of the single international language or, indeed, whether its use as an international language will continue at the present time. Grammar Grammar is the study and description of the inflexions and other formal features of a language by which one communicates the relationships between spoken or written words. Alternatively, it is a theory specifying Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 7 how to construct sentences of a language in preferred or prescribed forms, or the constructions themselves. In simple terms, grammar is the study of a language's syntax and inflexions. The use of grammar enables a person to control his or her subjects and predicates, verbs, clauses, and phrases sufficiently to be intelligible to those to whom he is speaking or writing. The use of grammar helps us to communicate to each other. However, grammar does not lead or precede a language. Instead, it follows a language. As a result, the grammar of a living language is in a state of constant change as it adapts to the changes in the common use of the language by educated citizens. Only the grammar of a dead language, such as Latin, is fixed and unchanging. Two examples serve to illustrate this point. During the Shakespearian period, the double comparative or superlative ("the most unhappiest day" of the year) was correct, although it is unacceptable today. Similarly, the use of "you wasn't' was considered to be correct a century later, although it would be associated with illiteracy or ignorance today. It is noun. According to the dictionary meaning, the word grammar means, the book that teaches rules for the use of words. In other words we can define the word grammar as follows: - The rules that say how words are combined arranged and changed to show different meanings. Its adjective form is GRAMMATICAL. It means correct according to the rules of grammar. PARTS OF SPEECH The 8 English Parts of Speech: There are the words that you use to make a sentence. There are only 8 types of word and the most important is the verb! Verbs be, have, do, work Nouns man, town, music Adjectives a, the, 69, big Adverbs loudly, well, often Pronouns you, ours, some Prepositions at, in, on, from Conjunctions and, but, though Interjections ah, dear, er, um Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 8 1. Verb 1.01 What are Verbs? The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word. Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and works all convey action. But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state. A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "Zarak speaks English", Zarak is the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe: Examples: Action (Ahmad plays football.) State (Naveed seems kind.) 1.02 Verb Forms English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many, considering that some languages (French, for example) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be, English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing. 1.03 Verb Classification We divide verbs into two broad classifications: HELPING VERBS MAIN VERBS 1.03.1 Helping Verbs Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says: • I can. • People must. • The Earth will. Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 9 structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs. 1.03.1 Helping Verbs Definition Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups: 1.03.1. B. Primary helping verbs (3 verbs) These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases: • be o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.) • have o to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.) • do o to make negatives (I do not like you.) o to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?) 1.03.1. A. Modal helping verbs (10 verbs) We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs: • can, could • may, might • will, would, • shall, should • must • ought to Here are examples using modal verbs: • I can't speak Chinese. • Ahmad may arrive late. • Would you like a cup of coffee? • You should see a doctor. • I really must go now. Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No. 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208. E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com 10 some coffee?) o to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.) o to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.) 1.03.2 Main Verbs Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says: • I teach. • People eat. • The Earth rotates. Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs. Main verbs have meaning on their own. There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways: 1.03.2. B. Transitive and intransitive verbs A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples: transitive: • I saw an elephant. • We are watching TV. • He speaks English. intransitive: • H e h as a rri ved . 1.03.2. A. Regular and irregular verbs This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart. regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle • look, looked, looked • work, worked, worked irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle • buy, bought, bought • cut, cut, cut • do, did, done Here are lists of regular verbs and irregular verbs. [...]... himself possessive adjective The teacher corrected our homework 6 English Prepositions A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in: • She left before breakfast • What did you come for? (For what did you come?) 6.01 English Prepositions List 34 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani”... "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big": The first A is bigger than the second A In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them: 3.03.1 Formation of Comparative Adjectives Formation of Comparative Adjectives Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: • • • • There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:... prepositional phrase: - It's immediately inside the door 2 Form Many adverbs end in -ly We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective Here are some examples: • quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs "Friendly", for example, is an adjective Some adverbs have no particular form, for example: • well, fast, very, never, always, often, still... are 2 basic positions for adjectives: 1 before the noun 2 after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste) adj noun 1 I like big 2 3.02.1 verb adj is big cars My car Adjective Before Noun 24 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No 0093-70-238830 Or 0092-345-9181208 E-mail: khushal_khugiani@yahoo.com Adjective Before Noun We sometimes... Nouns We always use a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun (name) This includes names of people, places, companies, days of the week and months For example: • • • • • They like Zarak (not *They like john.) I live in England She works for Sony The last day in January is a Monday We saw Titanic in the Odeon Cinema 2.05 Proper Nouns without “THE” 16 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared... example opposite, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big": A is the biggest In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives, and then at how we use them: 3.04.1 Formation of Superlative Adjectives Exception The following adjectives have irregular forms: • • • As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective: • • short adjectives:... aunt Uncle Khan, Aunt Sania Mr Naveed (not *the Mr Naveed), Mrs Karzai, Miss Sadia Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishCLUB.net General Motors, Air France, British Airways Naveed Brothers, Said & Son Ltd We do not normally use “the” for shops, banks, hotels etc named after a founder or other person (with -’s or -s) For example: shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys banks Steve’s Hotel, Cheif, McDonalds churches,... with continuous tenses with a change in meaning) 1.03.2 C Regular Verbs English regular verbs change their form very little (unlike irregular verbs) The past tense and past participle of regular verbs end in -ed, for example: work, worked, worked But you should note the following points: 1 Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, for example: learn, learned, learned learn, learnt, learnt 2 Some verbs... fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage in inside into • English Prepositions List with within Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared by: Khushal Khan “Khugiani” Cell No 0093-70-238830... to each of them Every cannot be used for 2 things For 2 things, each can be used: • Sometimes, each and every have the same meaning: The soldiers each received a medal He was carrying a suitcase in each hand Every is used to say how often something happens: • • There is a plane to Kabul every day The bus leaves every hour But often they are not exactly the same 22 Grammar: Part of Speech & Tenses Prepared . FREQUENCY 33 5. ENGLISH PRONOUNS 33 5.01 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 33 6. ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS 34 6.01 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 34 ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST 35 6.02 ENGLISH PREPOSITION RULE 36 ENGLISH. kind.) 1.02 Verb Forms English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many, considering. considering that some languages (French, for example) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to make the tenses are