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TITLE MIGRATION OF YOUTH TO HO CHI MINH CITY, VIETNAM Determinants of Mobility and Adjustment Experiences Hong Xoan Nguyen Thi MA in Sociology Discipline of Geographical and Environmental Studies School of Social Sciences The University of Adelaide Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2008 i ABSTRACT As a result of the economic reforms that were introduced in Vietnam in 1986, the country has grown economically However, due to a bias toward development policies which have been mainly concentrated in urban areas, the economic gap between rural and urban areas has rapidly widened over time More job opportunities and better living conditions in the city, as well as low productivity in agriculture, have caused people to move to the major cities Consequently, rural to urban migration has become one of the dominant flows of internal migration in the country in recent years This migration stream not only has increased in scale but also in its complexity Particularly, the age of the migrants has become younger as many young people, especially females, become involved in this flow Moreover, this migration flow has become less selective in terms of education as both more and less educated people migrate Also, not only the rich but the poor take part in this movement This thesis considers the determinants of moving and the experiences of young migrants to Ho Chi Minh City in terms of their economic, social and cultural adjustment in order to provide deep insights into the lives of young people when they migrate This thesis has used the migration model of Scharping (1997) as the theoretical framework to investigate the decision to move as well as their living experiences in the city A multiple method approach has been used to the study as both quantitative and qualitative data were analysed Quantitative data such as secondary data from censuses and data from large-scale surveys at the national and the city levels and primary data from the author’s survey with 300 young migrants were applied Qualitative data from 25 in-depth interviews with young migrants, with authorities and with migrant returnees were used in this study, to provide detailed information on migrants’ lives ii While the city has attracted a large number of youth from rural areas because of its development advantages, the city’s government has applied policies to limit this flow Yet, this migration control policy has proved costly and ineffective in restricting the flows of people to the major cities This policy has created many difficulties for migrants in the city In addition, low levels of education and limited work skills force many young migrants to work in the informal sector where their human rights are heavily violated Other young migrants work in cheap intensive-labour factories Low pay and hard work, but without labour and medical insurance, lead these young migrants to live on the margins of urban society These findings suggest that if the local people not accept these migrants, and urban policies make no effort to assistance them, it is impossible for young migrants in the city to be successful in building new lives and careers Instead of trying to limit rural to urban migration, the national government should put more effort into narrowing the ruralurban gap by improving development in rural areas More jobs with better pay in rural areas may be the most effective and sustainable way of reducing rural to urban migration flows iii DECLARATION The candidate confirms that the work submitted here is her own and contains no material which has been accepted for any other degree in any university and that appropriate credit has been provided where reference has been made in the text I give consent to my thesis to be made available in all forms of media when it is stored in the University Library Hong Xoan Nguyen Thi iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the Project 322, MOET, Vietnam for sponsoring my study at the University of Adelaide Thanks should go to the School of Social Sciences and HCMC National University who helped me obtain permission for data collection I would like to thank Kim Xuyen Tran and the staff at the Department of Sociology for organising the survey Special thanks go to all young migrants and officials who answered my questions in the field Many thanks to Professor Graeme Hugo for his valued and appreciated supervision Also I am grateful to Dianne Rudd, my second supervisor Their academic and personal support was instrumental in completing my Ph.D I would like to thank the staff and students of the Discipline of Geographical and Environmental Studies for their friendship and support I appreciate Christine Crothers for her cartographic services I would like to thank Phillip Thomas for his proofreading and editing my thesis I am indebted to all my friends in HCMC and Adelaide for their personal support during a difficult period Special thanks to Julia Hinsliff for her help from the first day of my arrival in Adelaide to the end of my candidature Finally, many thanks must go to my family First of all, I would like to thank my parents who encouraged and supported me during the course of this thesis Also, special thanks to my partner, without his support I would not have been able to finish my Ph.D He was always beside me and tolerant toward me during difficult times Also my son has been a motivation making me overcome some of the trauma and difficulties enabling me to complete the Ph.D v GLOSSARY ASFR Age-Specific Fertility Rate CBR Crude Birth Rate CDR Crude Death Rate CIA Central Intelligence Agency CNSA Canada’s National Statistical Agency DIS Department of Investment Services, Taiwan DNRE Department of Natural Resource and Environment, Ho Chi Minh City ECERFSD Enhancing Capacity to Engender Research for Sustainable Development, Vietnam 2003-2005 EIU Economic Intelligence Unit, London EFILWC European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Condition EWCP East-West Centre on Population GDP Gross Domestic Product GSO General Statistical Office, Vietnam HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus/ immunodeficiency syndrome HCMC Ho Chi Minh City ICPD International Conference on Population and Development IER Institute for Economic Research ILO International Labour Organisation IMO International Organisation for Migration ISPST Institute of Sociology and Population Studies and Training MIA Ministry of Interior Affairs, Vietnam MOET Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MPW Ministry of Public Works, Sai Gon NACSA National Assembly’s Committee for Social Affairs NEZs New Economic Zones vi NSI National Statistic Institute, Sai Gon PC- HCMC People' Committee of Ho Chi Minh City PPP Purchasing Power Parity SAVY Survey and Assessment of Vietnamese Youth SCUK UK Save the Children SMAM Singulate mean age at first marriage SO Statistical Office, Ho Chi Minh city STDs Sexually Transmitted Diseases TFR Total Fertility Rate UN United Nations UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AID UNAV United Nations Agencies in Vietnam UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund VA Voice of America VDIC Vietnam Development Information Centre VP Vietnamese Parliament VWU Vietnam Women Union WB World Bank WHO World Health Organisation Hukou Household Registration System in Chinese In Vietnamese Chi Cuc Di Dan Department of Migration, Ho Chi Minh City Doi Moi The economic reforms KT1 Permanent registration- non-migrant with household registration residing in the same district of registration vii KT2 Permanent registration- non-migrant with household registration but residing in a different district of registration KT3 Temporary registration- migrant residing independently or with relatives without registration book, working in formal factories or organisations, 6-12 months with extension KT4 Floating migrant, residing in a guest house or temporary dwelling, without registration book, 1-3 months or no registration, usually working in the informal sector Ho Khau Household Registration System Ho Tich Birth Registration VND Vietnam Dong (Vietnam Currency, 1USD = 16,000VND in 2007) viii TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE…………………………………………………………………………………………… i ABSTRACT ii DECLARATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v GLOSSARY .vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES xiii LIST OF FIGURE xviii SECTION A Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives of the Study 1.3 Youth and Their Migration Patterns in Asia and Vietnam 1.3.1 Youth and Their Migration Patterns in Asia 1.3.2 The Age Composition of Population in Vietnam 1.4 A Brief Review of Internal Migration and Youth Studies in Vietnam 11 1.4.1 Research on Migration in Vietnam 11 1.4.2 Research on Youth in Vietnam 14 1.4.3 Conclusion 17 1.5 Study Area 17 1.5.1 Vietnam Context 18 1.5.1.1 Geographical and Demographic Overview 18 1.5.1.2 Social and Economic Context since Economic Reform 21 1.5.2 HCMC Overview 23 1.6 Theoretical Framework 25 1.7 Methodological Approach 25 1.8 Structure of the Thesis 26 1.9 Conclusion 28 Chapter Theoretical Framework 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 A Review of Migration Theories 29 2.3 A Multilevel Model of Migration 37 2.4 Definition of Migration 49 2.5 Conclusion 54 Chapter Research Methodology 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Methodological Approach 55 ix 3.2.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies 55 3.2.1.1 Migration Research 57 3.2.2 A Multiple Method Approach 59 3.2.2.1 Structure of Research 60 3.3 Background of Censuses 63 3.3.1 The 1999 Census 63 3.3.2 The 2004 Census in HCMC 64 3.4 Survey of Young Migrants 67 3.4.1 Sampling 67 3.4.1.1 Target Population 67 3.4.1.2 Survey Location 68 3.4.1.3 Sampling Method 70 3.4.1.4 Questionnaire 74 3.4.1.5 Pilot Survey 78 3.4.1.6 Field Work 78 3.5 In-depth Interviews 81 3.6 Obstacles to the Research 81 3.7 Data Analysis 85 3.7.1 Quantitative Data 85 3.7.2 Qualitative Data 85 3.8 Conclusion 86 SECTION B Chapter Urbanisation in Vietnam .87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Definition of Urban Places in Vietnam 88 4.3 Urbanisation Trends 91 4.4 Components of Urban Growth 97 4.5 Urbanisation and Development 102 4.6 Urbanisation and Urban Growth in Ho Chi Minh City 105 4.7 Conclusion 112 Chapter Internal Migration in Vietnam 114 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Internal Migration before Unification 114 5.2.1 Internal Migration in the North 114 5.2.2 Internal Migration in the South 116 5.3 Internal Migration after Unification 117 5.4 Internal Migration after the Reforms 120 5.4.1 Patterns of Internal Migration 121 5.4.2 Characteristics of Internal Migrants 125 5.4.2.1 Sex and Age of Migrants 125 5.4.2.2 Migration and Education 132 5.5 Migration Streams to Ho Chi Minh City 135 5.5.1 Trends and Patterns of Migration 135 5.5.2 Characteristics of Migrants in HCMC 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