Conversational implicature a pragmatic application to the teaching of listening of listening comprehension section in toeic courses m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES  CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE A PRAGMATIC APPLICATION TO THE TEACHING OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION SECTION IN TOEIC COURSES A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL) SUPERVISOR ĐOÀN HUỆ DUNG, Ph.D SUBMITTED BY TRẦN LÊ VIẾT CHUNG HO CHI MINH CITY 2010 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES  CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE A PRAGMATIC APPLICATION TO THE TEACHING OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION SECTION IN TOEIC® COURSES A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL) Supervisor ĐOÀN HUỆ DUNG, Ph.D Submitted by TRẦN LÊ VIẾT CHUNG HO CHI MINH CITY, March 2010 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE A PRAGMATIC APPLICATION TO THE TEACHING OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION SECTION IN TOEIC® COURSES in terms of the Statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Department of English Linguistics and Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City Ho Chi Minh City, March 14, 2010 TRẦN LÊ VIẾT CHUNG i RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS I hereby state that I, Trần Lê Viết Chung, being candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan, and reproduction of theses Ho Chi Minh City, March 14, 2010 TRẦN LÊ VIẾT CHUNG ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would have been hardly made possible without the help support, and incentive of a large number of people who now deserve my heartfelt thanks I would first like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Ms Doan Hue Dung, Ph.D., for her enthusiastic encouragement, valuable comments and support in the preparation and completion of this thesis, asserting her indispensable role as a whole-hearted thesis supervisor I am greatly indebted to the organizers of the Master course, the Department of English Linguistics and Literature, Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities, and their staff members My special thanks must go to all my instructors for their enthusiasm and helpful instructions during the 2006-2009 course I wish to thank all the members in my thesis defense committee, who were enthusiastic to read this thesis I would like acknowledge and express my appreciation for the assistance of the authorities at Nong Lam CFS, who have created good conditions so that I am able to carry out the experimental teaching successfully I am also indebted to the teachers and students at Nong Lam CFS for their assistance in collecting the data for this study My sincere thanks go to Mr Truong Hon Huy, Ph.D for his valuable opinions for the research project, without which I would hardly have been able to overcome difficulties to pursue my studies up to now Finally, thanks are also due to my family and my good friends whose love, understanding and support were a constant source of encouragement and confidence to me iii ABSTRACT This thesis aims 1) to figure out a number of common troubles in comprehending the conversational implicatures and their communicative purposes when teaching Listening Comprehension Section in TOEIC course books at the Nong Lam Center of Foreign Studies, Thu Duc, HCMC and 2) to give some suggestions for improving the teaching and learning of listening comprehension at the center Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed in this study The study was mainly based on the questionnaires delivered to informants of (how many?) students and (how many?) teachers at the institution who were experienced in teaching listening comprehension The results of the study have indicated that (1) both the teachers and students have positive attitudes towards the teaching of conversational implicatures, (2) and (3) iv ABBREVIATIONS EFL English as a Foreign Language ESL English as a Second Language CFS Center for Foreign Studies HCMC Ho Chi Minh City L1 First Language L2 Second Language USSH University of Social Sciences and Humanities Version Questionnaire for students before experimental teaching Version Questionnaire for students after experimental teaching Version Questionnaire for teachers v LIST OF CHARTS 3.1 Time Distribution of Language Skills in reality (Wilt, 1950) 26 3.2 Time Distribution of Language Skills in training years (Wilt, 1950) ………………………………………………………… 27 4.1 Learners’ habitual options for Question-Response test items 66 4.2 Learners’ frequency of listening practice …………………… 68 4.3(a) Learners’ assessment of the influence of linguistic factors (in a broader sense) (before experimental teaching) …………… 72 Learners’ assessment of the influence of linguistic factors (in a broader sense) (after experimental teaching) ……………… 73 Learners’ assessment of the influence of linguistic factors (in a narrower sense) (before experimental teaching) ………… 74 Learners’ assessment of the influence of linguistic factors (in a narrower sense) (after experimental teaching) …………… 75 4.5 Learners’ awareness of the importance of CP and CI theory 76 4.6(a) Learners’ evaluation of the applicability of the Maxim of Quantity ……………………………………………………… 77 Learners’ evaluation of the effectiveness of the Maxim of Quantity ……………………………………………………… 77 Learners’ evaluation of the applicability of the Maxim of Quality ……………………………………………………… 78 Learners’ evaluation of the effectiveness of the Maxim of Quality ……………………………………………………… 78 4.3(b) 4.4(a) 4.4(b) 4.6(b) 4.7(a) 4.7(b) vi 4.8(a) Learners’ evaluation of the applicability of the Maxim of Relation ……………………………………………………… 79 Learners’ evaluation of the effectiveness of the Maxim of Relation ……………………………………………………… 79 Learners’ evaluation of the applicability of the Maxim of Manner ……………………………………………………… 80 Learners’ evaluation of the effectiveness of the Maxim of Manner ……………………………………………………… 80 4.10(a) Learners’ evaluation of the applicability of Conversational Maxims ……………………………………………………… 81 4.10(b) Learners’ evaluation of the effectiveness of Conversational Maxims ……………………………………………………… 82 4.11 Learners’ Comprehension of Conversational Maxims ……… 83 4.12 Learners’ personalized Conversational Implicatures ……… 84 4.8(b) 4.9(a) 4.9(b) vii LIST OF TABLES 2.1 The cooperative principle (Grice, 1975) …………………… 12 3.1 Characteristics of the first group of subjects (learners) …… 39 3.2 Characteristics of the second group of subjects (teachers) … 40 3.3 Schedule for incorporating the theory of Cooperative Principle into the experimental teaching …………………… 46 3.4 Lesson plan for administering maxims of Cooperative Principle …………………………………………………… 48 4.1 Learners’ self-assessment of listening comprehension ability 65 4.2 Learners’ habitual and redirected strategies in listening comprehension vs Teachers’ opinion about the effectiveness of the strategies …………………………… 69 viii Trong đoạn hội thoại sau đây, người trả lời vi phạm phương châm hội thoại (tiểu nguyên lý) nào? (chọn nhiều đánh giá cho ví dụ a, b, c, …) a) Boy: I want to watch TV, mom Mom: You haven’t put away your toys, dear Phương châm (Maxims) Lượng Chất Quan Cách hệ thức     b) Ann: I want a Porsche for my 18th birthday Dad: Then you have to pass your driving test first     c) Jane: What did you think of the opera? Jill: I like the set and the costumes     d) Boss: Haven’t you put an ad in the paper yet? Sally: I will, first thing in the morning     e) Jack: Your boss hasn’t arrived yet, has he? Colleen: His plane doesn’t land for another hour     f) Boy: “I don’t want you to anything that you don’t want to ” Girl: “I know Could we have another beer?” Boy: “All right But you’ve got to realize ” Girl: “Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?” (from Ernest Hemingway’s Hills like white elephants)         g) Girl: Do you truly love me? Boy: I will love you until the sea comes dry Hãy viết hàm ngôn hội thoại mà anh/ chị hiểu người tham gia hội thoại thứ hai muốn truyền đạt a) Boy: I want to watch TV, mom Mom: You haven’t put away your toys, dear b) Ann: I want a Porsche for my 18th birthday Dad: Then you have to pass your driving test first c) Jane: What did you think of the opera? Jill: I like the set and the costumes 110  Mom: …………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Dad: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Jill: ……………………… …………………………… d) Boss: Haven’t you put an ad in the paper yet? Sally: I will, first thing in the morning e) Jack: Your boss hasn’t arrived yet, has he? Colleen: His plane doesn’t land for another hour f) Boy: “I don’t want you to anything that you don’t want to ” Girl: “I know Could we have another beer?” Boy: “All right But you’ve got to realize ” Girl: “Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?” (from Ernest Hemingway’s Hills like white elephants) g) Girl: Do you truly love me? Boy: I will love you until the sea comes dry  Sally: …………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Colleen: ………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Boy: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Girl: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Girl: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Boy: ……………………… …………………………… …………………………… Chân thành cám ơn giúp đỡ anh/ chị! 111 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS (After Experimental Teaching) Dear students, The aim of this questionnaire is to collect data for my thesis Please, take time to complete it Your answers are very important and have great influence on the success of my study; and they will be used only for my study without exception Thank you for your help I PERSONAL INFORMATION Age:  30 Gender:  Male  Female Major at college: ……………………………… Job (at the present time or in the future): ……………  Pupil  Student  Office worker  Businessperson  Other: …………………… Your present class level at Nong Lam CFS  BE 3A  BE 3B Why you study English? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Communication  Requirement of current or future job  Overseas study  Watch foreign TV programs, or listen to radio ®  Preparation for TOEIC tests  Others: …………………… II SURVEY QUESTIONS How you assess your communicative Listening Comprehension ability now (at the end of course)? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b) and c)) a) Speed:  fast  slow  very slow b) Amount:  good (>70%)  not so good (around 50%)  poor (< 30%) c) Deduction – Conclusion ability:  good (>70%)  not so good (around 50%)  poor (< 30%) 112 At the end of course, which of the following strategies have you mastered and used in choosing answers for Question-Response test items? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Guess the answer by reading the responses beforehand  Distinguish words that sound similarly to key words in the question  Opt out the response that repeats words in the question  Opt out the response that contains associated words  Apply the pragmatic knowledge of Conversational Implicature At the end of course, which concept of Cooperative Principle is more effective and applicable? (Please number the following categories, for example: = top priority, …, = least priority) _ Conversation participants should be cooperative _ Participants should obey certain maxims/ rules for the conversation to be successful _ Apart from literal meaning, participants should employ some kind of inference/ deduction to understand the conversational implicatures underlying the surface of the utterance In your opinion, how these following factors affect your Lisneing Comprehension ability now (at the end of course)? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), etc.) a) Socio-cultural background knowledge b) Vocabulary c) Grammar d) Listening skills e) Deduction – conclusion ability f) Pragmatic knowledge of Conversational Implicature No  Little  Quite much  Much                      During a conversation, how these following factors affect your Listening Comprehension ability? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), etc.) No Little Quite much Much     a) Pronunciation     b) Key words     c) Sentential stress     d) Contextual meaning     e) Deduction process to comprehend 113 the Conversational Implicature There are many ways to get the gist of a conversation In your opinion, which of the following continue to be useful to you now (at the end of course)? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Take notes  Memorize the whole conversation  Guess the meaning through contexts  Ask classmates  Refer to teachers’ translation to Vietnamese  Refer to teachers’ explanation and clarification in English  Deduce the Conversational Implicature At the end of course, has your awareness of the role and contribution of the pragmatic knowledge of Cooperative Principle and Conversational Implicature to your Listening Comprehension ability been improved? (Please check [] on your choice)  Absolutely NO  Considerably  Little  Much In your opinion, how much does the pragmatic knowledge of Conversational Implicature support your Listening Comprehension ability? (Please check [] on your choice)  Little  Much (0-25%) (50-70%)  Considerably (25-50%)  Very much (75-100%) In your opinion, how easy is it to apply the following pragmatic knowledge to decode and work out conversational implicatures? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), and d)) a) Maxim of Quantity b) Maxim of Quality c) Maxim of Relevance d) Maxim of Manner Very easy     Rather easy     Difficult     Very difficult     10 In your opinion, how effective is it to apply the following conversational maxims to infer what a conversation participant wants to commnunicate (conversational implicatures)? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), and d)) Little 114 Considerably Much a) Maxim of Quantity b) Maxim of Quality c) Maxim of Relevance d) Maxim of Manner             Thank you for taking time to complete the questionnaire! 115 MINI-TEST COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE & CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE In your opinion, which of the following statement is correct? (Please check [] on your choice(s)) Maxim of Quality asks the conversation participants to …  say what you not have enough evidence  say what is far from the truth  tell part of the truth  tell the truth In your opinion, which of the following statement is correct? (Please check [] on your choice(s)) Maxim of Quantity asks the conversation participants, in the current context and for present purposes, to …  say nothing  give less information than required  give enough information  give more information than required Complete the following statement by check [] on your choice When one of the conversation participants AVOIDS saying something related to the conversation topic, he/ she is disobeying/ violating …  Maxim of Quality  Maxim of Quantity  Maxim of Relevance  Maxim of Manner Complete the following statement by check [] on your choices Maxim of Manner asks conversation participants to express something comprehensible by …  avoiding undecodable expressions  avoiding ambiguous expressions  avoiding clear expressions  giving lengthy explanations  giving brief expressions (avoiding unnecessary lenghthiness)  saying it orderly  saying it disorderly Which of the four conversational maxims does the hearer in the following dialogues violate? (Please check [] on your choice(s)) 116 Maxims Quantity Quality Relevance Manner a) Boy: I want to watch TV, mom Mom: You haven’t put away your toys, dear b) Ann: I want a Porsche for my 18th birthday Dad: Then you have to pass your driving test first c) Jane: What did you think of the opera? Jill: I like the set and the costumes d) Boss: Haven’t you put an ad in the paper yet? Sally: I will, first thing in the morning e) Jack: Your boss hasn’t arrived yet, has he? Colleen: His plane doesn’t land for another hour f) Boy: “I don’t want you to anything that you don’t want to ” Girl: “I know Could we have another beer?” Boy: “All right But you’ve got to realize ” Girl: “Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?” (from Ernest Hemingway’s Hills like white elephants) g) Girl: Do you truly love me? Boy: I will love you until the sea comes dry                             Write conversational implicatures that the hearer might want to communicate in each of the following dialogues a) Boy: I want to watch TV, mom Mom: You haven’t put away your toys, dear b) Ann: I want a Porsche for my 18th birthday Dad: Then you have to pass your driving test first c) Jane: What did you think of the opera? Jill: I like the set and the costumes d) Boss: Haven’t you put an ad in the paper yet? Sally: I will, first thing in the morning 117  Mom: …………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Dad: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Jill: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Sally: …………………… …………………………… …………………………… e) Jack: Your boss hasn’t arrived yet, has he? Colleen: His plane doesn’t land for another hour f) Boy: “I don’t want you to anything that you don’t want to ” Girl: “I know Could we have another beer?” Boy: “All right But you’ve got to realize ” Girl: “Would you please please please please please please please stop talking?” (from Ernest Hemingway’s Hills like white elephants) g) Girl: Do you truly love me? Boy: I will love you until the sea comes dry  Colleen: ………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Boy: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Girl: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Girl: ……………………… …………………………… ……………………………  Boy: ……………………… …………………………… …………………………… Thank you for taking time to complete the mini-test! 118 APPENDIX PHIẾU KHẢO SÁT DÀNH CHO GIÁO VIÊN Kính thưa q thầy cơ, Bảng câu hỏi nhằm thu thập liệu phục vụ đề tài nghiên cứu Xin quý thầy/ cô vui lòng dành chút thời gian quý báu trả lời câu hỏi Câu trả lời thầy/ cô quan trọng thành công đề tài Tất câu trả lời sử dụng vào mục đích nghiên cứu khơng nhằm mục đích khác Chân thành cảm ơn giúp đỡ thầy/ I THƠNG TIN CÁ NHÂN Tuổi:  40  SĐH  Tiến sĩ Nơi đào tạo:  Trong nước  Ngoài nước  Liên kết đào tạo nước Số năm giảng dạy Tiếng Anh  10 năm II CÂU HỎI NGHIÊN CỨU Theo thầy/ cô, yếu tố sau ảnh hưởng đến khả nghe hiểu Tiếng Anh giao tiếp học viên nào? (chọn mức độ đánh giá cho mục a, b, c, …) a) Kiến thức văn hóa – xã hội liên quan đến chủ đề nghe b) Từ vựng c) Ngữ pháp d) Kỹ nghe e) Khả suy diễn – kết luận f) Kiến thức ngữ dụng học hàm ngơn hội thoại Khơng Chút             Khá  Nhiều            Thầy/ cô đánh giá mức độ cần thiết phải giúp học viên hiểu vận dụng yếu tố sau dạy nghe hiểu đoạn hội thoại (phần QuestionResponse)? (chọn mức độ đánh giá cho mục a, b, c, …) 119 a) Cách phát âm b) Từ khóa c) Trọng âm câu d) Ý nghĩa ngôn cảnh e) Suy luận để hiểu Hàm ngôn hội thoại Khơng      Chút      Khá      Nhiều      Khi giải đáp cho học viên ý nghĩa đoạn hội thoại chọn câu trả lời đúng, thầy/ cô thường sử dụng phương pháp nào? (đánh dấu  cho [những] lựa chọn thầy/ cơ)  Giải thích Tiếng Anh  Dịch đoạn hội thoại sang Tiếng Việt  Giải thích kiến thức Hàm ngơn hội thoại  Phương pháp khác (xin nêu rõ): Có nhiều cách để học viên hiểu ý nghĩa đoạn hội thoại Trong cách đây, cách hữu ích học viên? (đánh dấu  cho [những] lựa chọn thầy/ cô)  Ghi  Ghi nhớ toàn nội dung đoạn hội thoại  Đốn nghĩa nhờ phân tích ngữ cảnh  Hỏi bạn bè  Nhờ thầy cô dịch sang Tiếng Việt  Nhờ thầy cô diễn giải Tiếng Anh  Suy luận để hiểu hàm ngôn hội thoại (nghĩa ngầm; nghĩa bóng) Từ trước đến nay, thầy/ có cung cấp cho học viên chiến lược cụ thể hay kiến thức ngôn ngữ cụ thể để giúp học viên tự khám phá ý nghĩa đoạn hội thoại hay khơng?  Có  Khơng Trong giải thích ý nghĩa đoạn hội thoại, thầy/ cô đề cập đến nội dung số kiến thức ngữ dụng học sau đây? (đánh dấu  cho [những] lựa chọn thầy/ cô)  Các bên tham gia hội thoại cần hợp tác với  Các bên tham gia hội thoại cần tuân thủ số nguyên tắc định để hội thoại thành cơng  Ngồi ý nghĩa bề mặt, bên tham gia hội thoại suy luận để hiểu hàm ngơn (nghĩa ngầm; nghĩa bóng) 120 Theo thầy/ cô, việc áp dụng nội dung Nguyên lý Hợp tác Hàm ngôn Hội thoại vào giảng dạy nghe hiểu đoạn hội thoại có hiệu khơng? (chọn mức độ đánh giá)  Hồn tồn khơng  Tương đối  Chút  Nhiều Theo thầy cơ, kiến thức hàm ngôn hội thoại giúp tăng cường khả nghe hiểu Tiếng Anh giao tiếp học viên mức độ nào? (đánh dấu  cho lựa chọn thầy/ cơ)  Chút (0-25%)  Khá nhiều (50-70%)  Tương đối (25-50%)  Rất nhiều (75-100%) Theo thầy/ cơ, học viên áp dụng kiến thức ngữ dụng học sau để suy luận hiểu hàm ngôn hội thoại hay không? (chọn mức độ đánh giá cho mục a, b, c, d) Rất dễ a) Phương châm Lượng b) Phương châm Chất c) Phương châm Quan hệ d) Phương châm Cách thức     Tương đối dễ     Khó Rất khó         10 Thầy/ cô đánh giá mức độ hiệu sử dụng phương châm hành xử để suy diễn nội dung người tham gia hội thoại muốn truyền đạt (chọn mức độ đánh giá cho mục a, b, c, d) Chút     a) Phương châm Lượng b) Phương châm Chất c) Phương châm Quan hệ d) Phương châm Cách thức Khá     Chân thành cám ơn giúp đỡ thầy/ cô! 121 Nhiều     QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS Dear teachers, The aim of this questionnaire is to collect data for my thesis We would like to ask you to complete it with relevant information Your answers are very important and have great influence on the success of my study; and they will be used only for my study without exception Thank you for your help and feedback I PERSONAL INFORMATION Age:  40 Gender:  Male  Female Educational background:  BA  DIP  MA  Ph.D Training place:  Vietnam  Overseas  Co-operational training in Vietnam Years of teaching experience:  < year  1-5 years  5-10 years  > 10 years II SURVEY QUESTIONS In your opinion, how these following factors affect your students’ Lisneing Comprehension ability? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), etc.) No Little Quite much Much     a) Socio-cultural background knowledge     b) Vocabulary     c) Grammar     d) Listening skills     e) Deduction – conclusion ability     f) Pragmatic knowledge of Conversational Implicature Please give your assessment on the necessity of helping your students comprehend and apply the following factors when teaching a conversation in TOEIC® Question-Response part? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), etc.) a) Pronunciation b) Key words No   122 Little   Quite much Much     c) Sentential stress d) Contextual meaning e) Deduction process to comprehend the Conversational Implicature             When explaining the meaning of a conversation to your students and get an appropriate answer for a Question-Response test item, what are your favorite methods? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Explain in English  Translate the whole conversation into Vietnamese  Explain using the knowledge of Conversational Implicature  Others: There are many ways for learners to get the gist of a conversation In your opinion, which of the following are useful to your students? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Take notes  Memorize the whole conversation  Guess the meaning through contexts  Ask classmates  Refer to teachers’ translation to Vietnamese  Refer to teachers’ explanation and clarification in English  Deduce the Conversational Implicature Have you ever provided your students with specific strategies or linguistic knowledge in order to help them discover the meaning of the conversations themselves?  Yes  No When explaining the meaning of a conversation to your students, which concept of Cooperative Principle have you mentioned? (Please check [] on your choice(s))  Conversation participants should be cooperative  Participants should obey certain maxims/ rules for the conversation to be successful  Apart from literal meaning, participants should employ some kind of inference/ deduction to understand the conversational implicatures underlying the surface of the utterance In your opinion, is it effective to incorporate the pragmatic knowledge of Cooperative Principle and Conversational Implicature into teaching a conversation in Question-Response part? (Please check [] on your choice) 123  Absolutely NO  Considerably  Little  Much In your opinion, how much does the pragmatic knowledge of Conversational Implicature support your students’ communicative Listening Comprehension ability? (Please check [] on your choice)  Little (0-25%)  Considerably (25-50%)  Much (50-70%)  Very much (75-100%) In your opinion, how easy is it for your students to apply the following pragmatic knowledge to decode and work out conversational implicatures? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), and d)) a) Maxim of Quantity b) Maxim of Quality c) Maxim of Relevance d) Maxim of Manner Very easy     Rather easy     Difficult     Very difficult     10 In your opinion, how effective is it to apply the following conversational maxims to infer what a conversation participant wants to commnunicate (conversational implicatures)? (Please check [] on ONE option in each category a), b), c), and d)) a) Maxim of Quantity b) Maxim of Quality c) Maxim of Relevance d) Maxim of Manner Little     Considerably     Much     Thank you for taking time to complete the questionnaire! 124