Error correction in oral communicative activities students and teachers viewpoints m a thesis in tesol

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES W X M.A THESIS IN TESOL ERROR CORRECTION IN ORAL COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES: STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’VIEWPOINTS by: HOÀNG THỊ PHƯƠNG THẢO SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN TESOL SUPERVISED BY: NGUYỄN THỊ THANH PHƯỢNG, PH.D HO CHI MINH CITY APRIL, 2009 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: Error Correction in Oral Communicative ActivitiesStudents’ and Teachers’ Viewpoints In terms of the Statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Programmes issued by the Higher Degree Committee Ho Chi Minh City 2009 Hoàng Thị Phương Thảo i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank with all my heart to people who have helped me to complete this research project: Dr Nguyen Thi Thanh Phuong, my dear advisor, who has guided me and encouraged me with great energy and endless faith in my abilities Her useful suggestions, direction and encouragement were really invaluable; all my teachers and staff at Department of English Linguistics and Literature who have given me useful advice and direction and kept me going in the right direction I sincerely thank hundreds of teachers and students who gave me priceless responses and the administration and staff of Youth Foreign Language School, Ho Chi Minh City I would not have finished this study without their help I would like to convey my gratitude to all my friends, my classmates, my colleagues who have supported, encouraged and given me useful comments and advice throughout my studies Finally and most importantly, I would like to express my special thanks to my family: my husband, my son, my parents, my sisters and brothers, my nieces and nephews Their love support, encouragement, understanding and belief have carried me throughout the writing of this research I could not have completed my studies without them ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT vii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi 1.CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 1.3 RESEARCH DESIGN 1.3.1 Research Questions 1.3.2 Data Collection Procedures 1.3.3 Delimitations and Limitations 1.3.3.1 Delimitations 1.3.3.2 Limitations 1.3.4 Assumptions 1.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 2.1 ERRORS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING 10 2.1.1 Types of Errors 11 iii 2.1.1.1 Overt Errors and Covert Errors: 11 2.1.1.2 Global Errors and Local Errors: 11 2.1.2 Sources of Errors 13 2.1.2.1 Interlingual Transfer 13 2.1.2.2 Intralingual Transfer 13 2.1.2.3 Context of Learning 13 2.1.2.4 Communication Strategies 14 2.2 DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS ABOUT ERROR TREATMENT IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING 14 2.2.1 Which Errors should be Corrected? 15 2.2.2 When should Errors be Corrected? 16 2.2.3 Who should Correct the Errors 17 2.2.4 How should Errors be Corrected 17 2.3 ERROR TREATMENT IN ORAL COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES 19 2.3.1 Oral Communicative Activities 19 2.3.2 Error Correction in Oral Communicative Activities 20 2.4 STUDENTS’ PREFERENCES 23 2.5 SUMMARY 24 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 25 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 25 3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE 27 3.3 INSTRUMENTS 28 iv 3.3.1 Description of the Questionnaires 29 3.3.2 Pilot Test 30 3.4 PROCEDURES FOR DATA COLLECTION 31 3.5 PROCEDURES FOR DATA ANALYSIS 32 3.6 SUMMARY 33 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 34 4.1 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PARTICIPANTS 34 4.1.1 The Students 34 4.1.2 The Teachers 36 4.2 RESEARCH QUESTION 1: STUDENTS’VIEWPOINTS 38 4.3 RESEARCH QUESTION 2: TEACHERS’VIEWPOINTS 45 4.4 RESEARCH QUESTION 3: COMPARISONS OF STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ VIEWPOINTS 55 4.6 SUMMARY 68 5.CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 69 5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH STUDY 69 5.2 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS 70 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 72 5.3.1 Recommendations for Teachers of Communicative Classes 73 5.3.2 Recommendations for Students of Communicative Classes 74 5.3.3 Recommendations for Future Research 75 5.4 CONCLUSIONS 76 v REFERENCES 79 APPENDICES 83 APPENDIX A STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE 83 APPENDIX B TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 86 APPENDIX C STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE (VIETNAMESE VERSION) 89 APPENDIX D TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE (VIETNAMESE VERSION) 92 APPENDIX E STATISTICS FROM STUDENTS’ RESPONSES 95 APPENDIX F STATISTICS FROM TEACHERS’RESPONSES 97 APPENDIX G INDEPENDENT SAMPLES TEST RESULTS FROM STUDENTS AND TEACHERS’RESPONSES 99 vi ABSTRACT Making errors and mistakes is unavoidable in foreign language learning and correcting students’ errors and mistakes is an important part of language teaching However, different theories of foreign language learning and teaching have different viewpoints on what, when and how to correct errors and mistakes In Vietnam, there are a lot of “communicative classes” which stress on the use of English as a mean of communication In these classes, oral communicative activities are frequently used and teachers tend not to correct all student’s errors and mistakes However, some students complained about their teacher’s practices This study was carried out to examine whether there was a difference between students’ preferences and expectations and teachers’ beliefs about error correction in oral communicative activities The descriptive, quantitative methodology was selected and statistical analyses were used to find the answers to the research questions Questionnaires with close-ended questions, multiple- choice questions and statements with Likert-scale were used to collect data from 195 students and 21 teachers of Youth Foreign Language School in Ho Chi Minh City The data then was analyzed using SPSS (Statistic Package for Social Science) software to find the results The findings showed that students expected their teachers to correct their errors immediately by giving them the correct answer rather than ignoring the errors or just indicating that there was something wrong and letting them to correct themselves They also did not want their teachers to let them speak freely without correction Teachers vii believed that correction their students’ errors and mistakes was one of their most important responsibilities, therefore, they tended to correct every error when they heard it Some of them tried to correct their students’ errors as soon as they found them and other delay correction until the end of the activities The results also indicate that students and teachers are affected greatly by traditional method of learning and teaching which emphasizes on accuracy rather than fluency, therefore, teachers should find an error correction strategy that can harmonize traditional and “new” methods of learning and teaching so that they can help students perform better in oral communicative activities viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Descriptive Analysis of Student Participants Table 2: Descriptive Analysis of Teacher Participants Table 3: S1 “I am not afraid of making errors when I am speaking in class” Table 4: S2 When I make an error, I feel: Table 5: S3 I don’t want my teacher to correct my mistakes when I am speaking in class Table 6: S4 Among these types of errors: phonological errors, syntactic errors, lexical errors, discourse errors, the errors that I want to be corrected most are Table 7: S5 I prefer my teacher to correct my errors immediately rather than after the activity 35 37 39 39 40 40 41 Table 8: S6 When my teacher corrects my errors immediately, I feel: 41 Table 9: S7 when my teacher corrects my errors after the activity, I feel: 41 Table 10: S8 When I make an error, I want: 42 Table 11: S9 When I make an error, the ways I want it to be corrected most are 42 Table 12: S10 When I know my friends are making an error but my teacher does not correct, I 43 think the reason is: Table 13: S11 Generally, I want my teacher to let us speak freely without correction: 43 Table 14: S1 I think my students are not afraid of making errors when they are speaking in class 46 46 Table 15: S2 when my students make an error, they feel: Table 16: S3 My students don’t want me to correct their mistakes when they are speaking in class 47 Table 17: S4 Among these types of errors: phonological errors, syntactic errors, lexical errors, 48 discourse errors, I think the errors need to be corrected most are: Table 18: S5 Correcting immediately is more effective than delaying after the activity 49 Table 19: S6 My students don’t want me to correct immediately 49 Table 20: S7 My students will not remember the mistakes if they are corrected after the activity Table 21: S8 When I find an error, I think I should Table 22: S9 If the errors should be corrected, I think I should Table 23: S10 If my students make an error and I don’ t correct it, my students might think the reason is Table 24: S11 Generally, I want to let my students speak freely without correction Table 25: Crosstabulation of S1 and groups Table 26: Mean, Standard Deviation, Median, Mode by teacher and student groups for S1 Table 27: Crosstabulation of S2 and groups Table 28: Mean, Standard Deviation, Median, Mode by teacher and student groups for S2 Table 29: Crosstabulation of S3 and groups Table 30: Mean, Standard Deviation, Median, Mode by teacher and student groups for S3 Table 31: Crosstabulation of S4-1 and groups Table 32: Mean, Standard Deviation, Median, Mode by teacher and student groups for S4-1 50 52 52 53 53 56 56 57 57 58 58 59 59 ix APPENDIX D TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE (VIETNAMESE VERSION) BẢNG HỎI DÀNH CHO GIÁO VIÊN Bảng câu hỏi nhằm tìm hiểu ý kiến Quý Thầy (Cô) việc sửa lỗi thực hành giao tiếp Kinh mong Quý Thầy (Cô) dành chút thời gian quý báu trả lời bảng câu hỏi Câu trả lời Quý Thầy (Cô) quan trọng thành công đề tài sử dụng cho mục đích nghiên cứu mà thơi Chúng xin chân thành cảm ơn cộng tác Q Thầy (Cơ) PHẦN I: THƠNG TIN BẢN THÂN Giới tính: Nam Nữ Thầy (Cơ) tuổi:………………………………………………………… Thầy (Cô) dạy tiếng Anh bao lâu? …………………………………… (năm/tháng) Thầy (Cô) dạy tiếng Anh trường Ngoại Ngữ Thanh Niên bao lâu? …………………………………………………………………………(năm/tháng) Thầy (Cô) dạy lớp tiếng Anh giao tiếp bao lâu?……………………(năm/tháng) Thầy (Cô) dạy lớp nào? (xin vui lòng đánh dấu vào tất lớp Thầy (Cô) dạy) Elementary Pre-intermediate Intermediate Thầy (Cơ) học xong cấp gì? PHẦN II: PHẦN CÂU HỎI CÂU 1: Tôi nghĩ sinh viên khơng sợ nói sai tham gia nói lớp (xin vui lòng khoanh tròn lựa chọn Thầy (Cô) từ câu đến câu 3) Rất không đồng ý Khơng đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến……… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… CÂU 2: Khi sinh viên nói sai, họ cảm thấy Vui Khác:…………………………… Không vui Ngượng ngùng Bình thường Xin vui lịng cho biết thêm ý kiến………… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………… 92 CÂU 3: Sinh viên không muốn Thầy Cơ sửa lỗi họ nói lớp Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến……… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………… Rất không đồng ý Khơng đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến CÃU 4: Trong lỗi sau: lỗi phát âm, lỗi ngữ pháp, lỗi từ vựng, lỗi giao tiếp, lỗi mà tơi nghĩ cần phải sửa (xin vui lịng xếp theo thứ tự từ đến 4) Lỗi phát âm Lỗi ngữ pháp Lỗi từ vựng Lỗi giao tiếp Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… CÂU 5: Sửa cho sinh viên bạn nói sai hiệu để đến sau kết thúc hoạt động (xin vui lòng khoanh trịn lựa chọn Thầy (Cơ) Rất khơng đồng ý Khơng đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến……… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………… CÂU 6: Sinh viên không muốn Thầy (Cô) sửa lỗi họ nói sai (xin vui lịng khoanh trịn lựa chọn Thầy (Cô) Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến……… ……………………………………………… ……………………………………………… Rất không đồng ý Không đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến CÂU 7: Sinh viên khơng nhớ lỗi lỗi sửa sau kết thúc hoạt động (xin vui lòng khoanh trịn lựa chọn Thầy (Cơ) Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến……… …………………………………………… ……………………………………………… Rất không đồng ý Khơng đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến 93 CÂU 8: Khi sinh viên nói sai, tơi nghĩ tơi nên (xin vui lòng xếp theo thứ tự từ đến 3) Nói rõ cho họ biết họ sai đâu Ra hiệu họ nói sai khơng nói cho họ biết sai đâu Khơng nói lỗi sai Xin vui lịng cho biết thêm ý kiến…………………………………………………….… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… CÂU 9: Khi phải sửa lỗi mà sinh viên nói sai, tơi nghĩ tơi nên (xin vui lòng khoanh tròn lựa chọn Thầy (Cơ) Nói cho họ biết lỗi sai đâu sửa lỗi giúp họ Nói cho họ biết lỗi sai đâu để họ tự sửa Yêu cầu bạn khác sửa giúp họ Khác:…………………………………………………………………………… Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… CÂU 10: Khi sinh viên nói sai mà tơi khơng sửa, họ nghĩ lý Thầy (Cô) không sửa (xin vui lòng xếp theo thứ tự từ đến lý bạn sinh viên thường nghĩ đến lý bạn sinh viên nghĩ đến nhất) Thầy (Cô) bận khơng thật lắng nghe sinh viên nói Thầy (Cơ) khơng quan tâm sinh viên nói Thầy (Cơ) muốn sinh viên tự nói chuyện Thầy (Cô) không muốn làm sinh viên thất vọng nói sai Xin vui lịng cho biết thêm ý kiến………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… CÂU 11: Nói chung, tơi muốn để sinh viên nói chuyện tự mà khơng sửa lỗi (xin vui lịng khoanh trịn lựa chọn Thầy (Cô) Rất không đồng ý Không đồng ý Khơng có ý kiến Đồng ý Rất đồng ý Xin vui lòng cho biết thêm ý kiến………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… XIN CHÂN THÀNH CÁM ƠN QUÝ THẦY (CÔ) 94 APPENDIX E STATISTICS FROM STUDENTS’ RESPONSES QUESTION N Valid Missing Mean Median Mode Std Deviation QUESTION N 195 3.4154 4.0000 4.00 1.10144 Valid Missing Mean Median Mode Std Deviation Valid Missing Mean Median Mode Std Deviation Valid Missing Mean Median Mode Std Deviation Median 3.0000 3.00 QUESTION N 75535 Valid 195 Missing 2.3128 Median 3.0000 1.00 Std Deviation QUESTION N 195 2.5897 2.0000 2.00 1.35688 Mean Mode 1.36585 Valid 195 Missing 1.2256 Median 1.0000 1.00 Std Deviation QUESTION 11 N 195 4.3077 4.0000 4.00 76502 Mean Mode QUESTION N 3.1487 Std Deviation 195 2.3949 2.0000 3.00 87519 Mean Mode QUESTION N 195 Missing QUESTION N Valid 58359 Valid 195 Missing Mean 2.0256 Median 2.0000 Mode 2.00 Std Deviation 78934 QUESTION N Valid Missing QUESTION 4-1 195 QUESTION 4-2 195 QUESTION 4-3 195 QUESTION 4-4 195 0 0 Mean 1.7128 2.6051 2.6769 3.0051 Median 1.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 Mode Std Deviation 1.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 1.11207 1.04683 94336 93884 95 QUESTION N Valid Missing QUESTION 8-1 195 QUESTION 8-2 195 QUESTION 8-3 195 0 Mean 1.0974 1.9692 2.9333 Median 1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 1.00 2.00 3.00 33017 36479 26991 Mode Std Deviation QUESTION 10 N Valid Missing QUESTION 10-1 195 QUESTION 10-2 195 QUESTION 10-3 195 QUESTION 10-4 195 0 0 Mean 2.3179 2.6256 2.3385 2.7179 Median 3.0000 3.0000 2.0000 2.0000 3.00 4.00 1.00 4.00 1.05099 1.13898 1.09747 1.13856 Mode Std Deviation 96 APPENDIX F STATISTICS FROM TEACHERS’RESPONSES QUESTION N Valid Missing Mean Median Mode Valid Median Mode Std Deviation QUESTION N Valid Missing Valid 21 Missing 0 2.8095 Mean 2.7619 2.0000 Median 2.0000 Mode 21 2.00 Std Deviation 1.03049 Missing Mean QUESTION N 2.00 Std Deviation QUESTION N 21 QUESTION N 1.26114 Valid 21 Missing 0 2.24 Mean 3.0476 2.00 Median 3.0000 2.00 Mode 889 Std Deviation 21 3.00 QUESTION N 1.35927 Valid 21 Missing 0 Mean 2.2381 Mean 1.38 Median 2.0000 Median 1.00 Mode 1.00 Std Deviation 740 Mode 2.00 Std Deviation QUESTION N 83095 Valid Missing 21 QUESTION 11 N Valid 21 Missing 0 Mean 3.1905 Mean 2.0476 Median 3.0000 Median 2.0000 Mode 2.00(a) Mode Std Deviation 2.00 Std Deviation 1.32737 80475 QUESTION N Valid Missing QUESTION 4-1 21 QUESTION 4-2 21 QUESTION 4-3 21 QUESTION 4-4 21 0 0 Mean 1.57 2.43 3.00 3.00 Median 1.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 2(a) 2(a) 1.207 978 775 894 Mode Std Deviation 97 QUESTION N Valid Missing QUESTION 8-1 21 QUESTION 8-2 21 QUESTION 8-3 21 0 Mean 1.48 1.86 2.62 Median 1.00 2.00 3.00 Mode Std Deviation 680 655 669 QUESTION 10-1 21 QUESTION 10-2 21 QUESTION 10 N Valid Missing QUESTION 10-3 21 QUESTION 10-4 21 0 0 Mean 2.57 2.57 2.33 2.52 Median 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 Mode Std Deviation 2(a) 1(a) 1(a) 2(a) 1.076 1.207 1.111 1.167 98 APPENDIX G INDEPENDENT SAMPLES TEST RESULTS FROM STUDENTS AND TEACHERS’RESPONSES 99 QUESTION Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION Equal variances assumed 205 651 Equal variances not assumed Upper -2.409 214 017 -.6059 25149 -1.02132 -.19040 -2.542 25.185 018 -.6059 23830 -1.01280 -.19892 100 QUESTION Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference F QUESTION Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig .740 391 t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference Lower Upper -.779 214 437 -.1568 20130 -.48933 17578 -.769 24.364 449 -.1568 20389 -.50539 19184 QUESTION Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F QUESTION Equal variances assumed Sig .102 749 Equal variances not assumed t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -11.681 214 000 -2.0696 17717 -2.36228 -1.77691 -10.926 23.797 000 -2.0696 18942 -2.39379 -1.74541 101 QUESTION 4-1 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference F QUESTION 4-1 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig .001 981 t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference Lower Upper -.549 214 584 -.1414 25752 -.56682 28404 -.514 23.803 612 -.1414 27519 -.61237 32958 QUESTION 4-2 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference F QUESTION 4-2 Equal variances assumed Sig .482 488 Equal variances not assumed t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference Lower Upper -.739 214 461 -.1766 23900 -.57138 21827 -.780 25.197 442 -.1766 22627 -.56294 20983 102 QUESTION Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig t-test for Equality of Means t Sig (2tailed) df Mean Difference Std Error Difference 90% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 021 885 Upper 1.932 214 055 6007 31100 08695 1.11451 1.966 24.722 061 6007 30552 07864 1.12283 QUESTION 8-1 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION 8-1 Equal variances assumed 40.646 000 Equal variances not assumed Upper 4.376 214 000 3788 08654 20817 54934 2.522 21.028 020 3788 15018 06646 69105 103 QUESTION 8-2 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION 8-2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 18.177 000 Upper -1.218 214 225 -.1121 09206 -.29356 06938 -.772 21.357 449 -.1121 14523 -.41379 18962 QUESTION Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F t-test for Equality of Means Sig t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION Equal variances assumed 2.628 106 Equal variances not assumed Upper 1.127 214 261 1553 13779 -.11628 42690 931 22.758 362 1553 16680 -.18995 50058 104 QUESTION 10-1 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F QUESTION 10-1 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig .075 784 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 1.048 214 296 2535 24191 -.22336 73032 1.028 24.297 314 2535 24651 -.25496 76192 QUESTION 10-2 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F QUESTION 10-2 Equal variances assumed t-test for Equality of Means Sig .135 t 714 Equal variances not assumed df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -.206 214 837 -.0542 26309 -.57279 46437 -.197 23.996 846 -.0542 27575 -.62335 51492 105 QUESTION 11 Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower QUESTION 11 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 000 994 Upper 121 214 904 0220 18162 -.33601 37997 119 24.332 906 0220 18448 -.35850 40246