A contrastive analysis between english vietnamese nominal groups and some suggestions to teach vietnamese english nominal group translation

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY-HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES VÕ HỒNG NHẬT A contrastive analysis Between English-Vietnamese nominal groups And some suggestions to teach Vietnamese- English nominal group translation (SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TESOL) SUPERVISED BY: NGUYỄN TIẾN HUØNG, PH D HO CHI MINH CITY – 2006 Certificate of originality I certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled: “A contrastive analysis between English and Vietnamese nominal groups and some suggestions to teach Vietnamese- English nominal group translation” in term of the statement of requirements for Thesis in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee Hoà Chí Minh City June 30, 2006 Võ Hồng Nhật Retention and use of the thesis I hereby state that I, Võ Hồng Nhật, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL), accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s thesis deposited in the University Library In term of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan, or reproduction of theses Hồ Chí Minh City June 30, 2006 Võ Hồng Nhật Acknowledgements First, I would like to express sincere thanks to my supervisor, Dr Nguyễn Tiến Hùng, whom I own a great debt of gratitude His sympathy and invaluable instructions have given me confidence and determination to overcome all obstacles of the topic complexity In addition I would like to thank the teachers and classmates at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, whose willingness and enthusiasm have supported me so much in thesis fulfillment Also, I would like to show my deepest gratitude to my father, father-in-law, my wife who make me sometimes asking myself why such a push and support from them still exist in this current state of practical life And again, back with my turn, the thesis is my strong hope to be an example of hard work that my children may such follow Abstract I would like to start the abstract with a feeling of sympathy to the primitive stage of Vietnamese linguistics and of deep gratitude to leading Vietnamese linguists, educators whose contribution has been shining proudly in the darkness of the current learning, teaching and researching environment in which almost everything is virtually insufficient for academic researches Beginning with the question which topic to be chosen for the final thesis of TESOL Master Program organized by the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, about linguistics or one of the four language skills, I put myself in a very uneasy state of hesitancy to face a dilemma: a thesis about language skill is easier but could be repetitive, about linguistics is so difficult but could be interesting What makes it difficult is not just the topic nature itself but the archive system of linguistic research The University and City Libraries aren’t places to search linguistic studies of Vietnamese and English nominal groups Most of my scattered Vietnamese linguistic references is searched from http:// ngonngu.net, http://www.thongluan.org, http://dactrung.net, http://www.viet namnet.vn but only one article about Vietnamese noun phrase haït dưa, hạt dưa is searched, whereas a huge amount of information, data, no way to read them all, can be quickly searched from overseas websites Now with the fulfillment of this linguistic study of Vietnamese and English nominal groups, I believe that it may contribute as one of its smallest part to the field Table of contents INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 REASONS FOR THE TOPIC CONTENT AND STUDY SCOPE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 10 THESIS PLAN 10 LITERATURE REVIEW 12 2.1 PUBLISHED STUDY ABOUT ENGLISH NOMINAL GROUPS 12 Angela Downing 12 Howard Jackson 13 Geoffrey Finch 18 2.2 PUBLISHED STUDY ABOUT VIETNAMESE NOMINAL GROUPS 20 Cao Xuan Hao 20 Nguyen Kim Than 24 Diep Quang Ban 27 DISCUSSION AND RESULTS 30 3.1 CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE NOMINAL GROUPS 30 3.1.1 Expressing the experience of “things” 30 The head element 31 The articles 31 The determining element 32 The modifying element 33 The qualifying element 33 Pronominal heads 34 The pronoun it as pronominal head 35 The pronouns this, that, these, those as pronominal heads 36 Substitution head one/ones 37 Substitution by the same 38 Substitution by such 39 3.1.2 Presenting “things” as mass, countable, indefinite and definite 40 The notions of “mass” and “count” 40 Grammatical markers of countability 40 The systems of definiteness 42 Indefinite nominal groups 43 Definite nominal groups 44 Discourse functions of the system of definiteness 46 Generic statements about “things” 48 3.1.3 Selecting and particularising “things” 50 The system of determination 50 Demonstratives: this, that, these, those 53 Possessive determinatives 53 Non-specific deictic determinatives 54 WH-deictic determinnatives, such 56 Adjectival determinatives 58 Partitive selection 59 Determintatives used as elliptical heads 61 3.1.4 Expressing intrinsic features of “things” 64 Intrinsic features of “things” 64 The epithet 65 The classifier 66 Words that have dual functions 67 3.1.5 Expressing extrinsic features of “things” 69 Communicative functions of qualifier 69 Nominal groups as qualifiers 71 Nominal that-clauses as qualifiers 71 Nominal wh-clauses as qualifiers 72 Adverbial group qualifiers 73 Prepositional group qualifiers 74 Adjectival group qualifiers 75 Relative clause qualifiers (situational ) 76 Infinitive / -ing / -en clause qualifiers 77 3.1.6 Organising and communicating the experience of “things” 79 Summary of experiential structure of NGs 79 Logical structure of English and Vietnamese NGs 81 Recursive realisation of the head element 82 Recursive realisation of the classifier 82 Recursive realisation of the epithet 83 Recursive realisation of the determiner 84 Recursive realisation of the qualifier 84 3.2 TROUBLES IN TRANSLATING FROM VIETNAMESE INTO ENGLISH NOMINAL GROUPS 85 3.2.1 The author 86 3.2.2 The reader 87 3.2.3 The text 87 Culture and text 88 Pragmatics and text 90 Lexis and text 92 Semantics and text 94 Syntax and text 97 CONCLUSION 99 4.1 PEDAGOGICAL SUGGESTIONS 99 4.1.1 Principles of Vietnamese-English NGs translation 99 Translation mix 99 The principles of translation 100 The principles of equivalence 102 4.1.2 Pedagogical suggestions 103 Overview of translation tasks 103 Translation misconceptions 104 Competence development in translation 106 4.2 THESIS LIMITATION 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY 111 APPENDICES 116 6.1 6.2 ACRONYMS AND NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS 116 LIST OF DIAGRAMS 116 INTRODUCTION Each people has their own way in expressing ideas, notions, thoughts… through their own language Vietnamese and English possess own ways in structuring these language components in order that those ideas, notions, thoughts… are uniquely generalized Whereas a beautiful long blond hair makes sense, long beautiful blond a hair doesn’t The same discipline (in term of language structure) is applied to Vietnamese as in: Một tâm hồn già nua bệnh hoạn but not già nua tâm hồn bệnh hoạn The emerging issues here are: (1)What is the language discipline of those expressions? (2)Do they share any similarities and differences? (3) What are linguistic features that affect the meaning and structures of those NGs? (4) What can help with the Vietnamese-English translation of NGs? (5) How learners can gain competences to translate Vietnamese-English NGs? In fact nominal group structure is one of the most difficult issues in grammar Compared with its equal levels in sentence structure (verbal groups, adjectival groups…), nominal group is perhaps more complicated than its grammatical unit neighbors since it relates to all ‘things’ and ‘entities’, abstract or concrete…, that human brain can perceive and experience As we can observe, nominal groups exist in almost all sentences The study about NGs is consequently hard job in study In the current availability of research references, it seems even harder, and results so much efforts and time to work with the study 1.1 REASONS FOR THE TOPIC First, the study aims at examining the linguistic and paralinguistic features of English and Vietnamese nominal groups The study will be carried out thoroughly enough until an overall picture of a contrastive analysis between English and Vietnamese nominal groups emerges Second, foreseeable troubles (from the analysis) and solutions are to be suggested in order that interferences from mother tongue in the course of translation of NGs from Vietnamese to English can be overcome The study also helps with some hints for teachers and learners in translation classes, hopefully with worthwhile implications This master thesis, as a requirement for the master program in TESOL of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, is a chance to have a systematic and thorough understanding of Vietnamese and English nominal groups in a contrastive overview Additionally, which practical implications can be withdrawn from the study to serve in pedagogical settings of teaching VietnameseEnglish translation 1.2 CONTENT AND STUDY SCOPE The study is guided by the following questions: a) What are the linguistic features of English and Vietnamese nominal groups? b) Do they share any similarities and differences ? c) Which troubles impede Vietnamese learners in their course of translation NGs from Vietnamese into English ? d) What are some of teaching implications for VietnameseEnglish translation? The study also discusses a number of English and Vietnamese grammatical subjects, strongly emphasizes to syntactical aspects as well as provides some discourse analyses circulating the thesis content 1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study methodology is based on a fully qualitative approach Analyses are withdrawn from careful observation of contemporary languages with high level of distribution, both in Vietnamese and English The study possesses well-selected data which appear in naturally communicative settings so that an authentic state of “real life” nature is maintained The richness of selected data nested in real contexts, covering all aspects of the topic complex, also helps create strong and convincing impacts on readers The qualitative approach orients a full description in words, then explores significance from each prescribed situation to structure the study as it naturally proceeds 1.4 SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE Vietnamese and English NGs appear in various distribution and discipline that cause much troubles in teaching and learning the language translation Scientifically, there appears a need to have a systematic contrastive analysis between the Vietnamese and English NGs in order to equip teachers and learners with a contrastive overview when facing with issues relating to NGs, especially in translation Practically, problems and solutions in translating VietnameseEnglish NGs help the English teaching and learning with some hints Moreover, if compared with other educational fields, there are so few teaching and learning materials related to NGs and translation Eventually, there also appears a need to have such a thesis 1.5 THESIS PLAN The study is divided into six major sections Section as you are reading is a general introduction of the thesis content Section reviews all relevant literature from past researches related to the thesis title, general guiding signposts to study English and Vietnamese nominal groups Section discusses, analyses 10 Textual level of equivalence is the degree of cohesion created by the translated text Since texture is essential for readers to follow text, appropriate cohesive devices or markers of equivalence guarantee highest understanding of the translation To succeed in creating textual equivalence, translators have to decide one of the following factors before hand: (1) target reader, (2) translation purpose, (3) text type Pragmatic level of equivalence guarantees a translation text of what is inferred is similar to the intended implicatures of the author in the source text It is not all the times easy for this affect of implication Translators, unless similar implicatures or speech acts created, have another alternative ways to make understanding clear 4.1.2 Pedagogical suggestions So far a great number of analyses have been made to supplement proper understanding and consciousness of English and Vietnamese NGs, as well as principally-affecting features, both visible and invisible, that decide the success of ideal translation The research then comes to this final important phase from which the assessment of its practical significance can be proven The next two questions will be: (1) What can make sense with such long and in-depth discussion? (2) Is there any pedagogical suggestions withdrawn? In order to be answered properly, It is important to go next with: (1) an overview of translation tasks, (2) common misconceptions about translation, (3) the nature of Vietnamese into English translation of NGs, (4) the development of competences of such translation in pedagogical settings Overview of translation tasks Larson (1998) generalizes translation tasks with the following diagram which says translation is to discover meaning from source language, put it in an abstract and temporary vehicle of meaning, then re- express the meaning into the receptor language With this 103 generalization it comes to two complicated approaches of in what manner or ways that meaning from source text is discovered and meaning into the receptor language is re-expressed Diagram 15: Larson's overview of translation tasks Experiences in practice of translating show a tremendous involvement of the above processes A huge amount of linguistic and non-linguistic constraints always tie translator’s freedom and recreation to give out translate works which are accurate, natural and communicative To be accurate translated work should be as close as possible to the source language To be natural, it has to be as appropriate as possible to the kind of the text being re-expressed To be communicative, the readiness to be understood, implemented by receptor audience has to be at highest possibility Translation misconceptions There appear, here and there in pedagogical environments, some misconceptions about translation These misleading orientations can bring both teachers and learners to invisibly false assessment of language acquisition in two aspects: (1) second language learning and (2) translation teaching itself These misconceptions are: Translation is always an efficient and effective tool to acquire English language: To be effective, a translation successfully reaches an intended result To be efficient the successful translation consumes the least energy, time, money These are in consideration of teaching English 104 It is a natural tendency for learners to translate target texts (in English) into mother tongue Not any of teachers’ control can guarantee how much translation learners are allowed for this is an individual and silent activity Because what comes first is remembered most, false assumption of meaning with an equivalent in mother tongue pre-occupies learners’ mind and it is hardly to be deleted Implication from meaning changes across people, cultures and languages, whereas false assumption remains unchanged or can be hard to be changed If it has already been admitted that unexpected translation of learners renders misleading equivalents in mother tongue, language teachers are to foresee the situation, anticipate translation correction and provide learners with appropriate adjustment If learners self translate the NG đầm laày into English as swamp and go to an assumption that đầm lầy = swamp, it really is a damaging language acquisition since the expression of an area of wet land has at least four lexical items to be taken care of: a) marsh: an area of low land that is always soft and wet b) swamp: an area of ground that is wet and cover with water c) bog: an area of wet, soft ground, formed of decaying plants d) fen: an area of low flat wet land, especially in the east of England To know English is to know Vietnamese-English translation: To be a good translator, besides skills, learners need to have vast knowledge of linguistics and cultures both with source and target language To understand culture takes long-lasting intention and favorites Being able to listen, speak, read and write the target language (English language) is insufficient for translating competence Translating is a complicated process that requires an excellent command of nuances in language use To translate bolded NGs in the following introduction of the book entitled Traditional festival of Vietnam: Nếu hình ảnh đa, giếng nước, sân đình trở thành biểu tượng tâm thức 105 người dân Việt Nam lễ hội lại thành tố gắn bó, thân thiết mà thiêng liêng, mãnh liệt…, it seems impossible for any good learners of English with poor translating skills and cultural-bound knowledge Competence development in translation Teaching English through translation has had a long-standing history probably since English was first taught The role that translation contributes to the language acquisition is so clear that translating activities can be seen everywhere, every time Learners learn translation and profit from two areas: (1) language acquisition, (2) acquisition of branch of translation skills in applied linguistics to readily apply back to life and work Learning translation itself has both advantages and disadvantages On the one hand it strengthens learners’ consideration of both linguistic and paralinguistic features in Vietnamese and English, consolidates learners’ skills in reading and writing the languages, on the other some drawbacks can be easily found such as: a possible unbalance in time distribution between reading, writing skills and listening, speaking ones; a possible fear from the creative use of languages since translation can easily show language mistakes, thus reducing the skill development of speaking and listening The followings are some teaching implications to the field: Help learners build a rich stock of vocabulary Each lexical item is a container that carries meaning The more abundant the vocabulary stock is the more promisingly flexible the translation works are It is important that vocabulary acquisition is worthwhile in context and in wise comparison with its equivalent in target language The study of separating single items is both easily forgotten and time wasting since only authentic use of lexical items decides its successful application in real world Teachers are to be at all the times considerable to have learners not inventing nonsense lexical items due to careless lexis use or formation Whereas this NG of a workable idea is succinct and 106 authentic, the invention of a doable idea is unacceptable, incomprehensible and unexplained Increase learners’ competence of grammatical flexibility This includes all linguistic aspects of patterns, figurative uses, syntactic and lexical shifts, denotation, connotation On the one hand, grammar helps in the generalization of language rules and orders, on the other it strengthens the language competence of flexibility in expressing ideas The following translation extracts of Vũ Anh Tuấn illustrate the translation flexibility of text shifts from: 1) Adjunct to disjunct: with bold NGs 2) Possessive to spatial meaning: with italics NGs, though connotation remains unchanged SL: Mỹ Sơn khu thánh địa lớn nhất, lâu đời kiến trúc nghệ thuật số di tích Chăm Việt Nam TL: Architecturally, My Son is the most valuable, largest, oldest Holy Land among Cham relics in Vietnam 3) Existential to comparative statement SL: Thaùnh địa Mỹ Sơn có giá trị ngang với Angkor (Campuchia),Pagan(Myanma),Borobudur (Indonesia) TL: My Son is as valuable as Angkor (Campuchia), Pagan (Myanma), Borobudur (Indonesia) 4) 5) 6) 7) The use of tense: NGs in bold parts which mark tense use Relative to en-clause qualifiers: NGs in italic parts Clausal to phrasal epithets: NGs in underlined parts Coordination to subordination: NGs in / / SL: Mãi ngày nay, Huế số ỏi lại lòng giới đại đắm thơ sâu thẳm thiên nhiên Núi, sông hồ biển dựng nên không gian hoành tráng vừa mở 107 TL: tầm nhìn bát ngát, vừa viền khung lại mặt đất tranh biến ảo đầy màu sắc thiên nhiên vẽ nên Thành phố biết đến nhiều kỷ lại quà tặng quý giá dành cho người, đáp ứng khao khát trở nên xúc cư dân đô thị đại, /nhu cầu thiên nhiên/ (Hoàng Phủ Ngọc Tường) Until now, Hue has been seen as one of a few old cities still existing in the modern world, soaked in a profound poem of nature, Mountains, river and sea create a majestic dimension, opening an immense vision and framing the land with colorful pictures drawn by nature This centuries-old city has given people a valuable present, meeting an urgent desire of urban residents that is /the desire of nature/ Well define equivalence to learner Equivalence should not be constrained to word-for-word, line-by-line though the standards could work with the bi-lingual text presentation It is noted that equivalence is to be target reader-centered not the translator nor teacher Strengthen learners’ awareness of cultural features, which tightly attached to NG text and cultural values are the core transmission for cultural-bound target text Strengthen learners’ awareness of pragmatic features Though pragmatic effect occurs mostly with VGs with performative verbs, it can be existential in NG such as the phương án hai as discussed in previous section Apply learner-centered principles for: a) Translation material has to be up-to-date, relevant to learners’ interests both in source and target language The more updated with current issues the materials are, the more 108 interested and involved the learners will be It could be an ad, a press release, a scientific report, an operation summary of an non-governmental organization… Teachers are to spend time to search the web for collection b) Translation assigned tasks has to be appropriate with learners’ competence level of language Teachers considerably and cautiously assign translation tasks which can (1) stimulate learners’ creative, (2) well balance with time plan for the four skills of language acquisition The following translation tasks are most commonly used: parallel texts, double translation, summary translation c) Translation incentive evaluation helps learner release fear for the translation works and makes translation learning more an activity in class than a product of advanced requirement The scoring of translation exercise by a collective subtraction of all pre-said errors (i.e each punctuation error : -1, each wrong or missing cohesive markers: -1, wrong register : -1, etc…), thus making a possible score minus zero, is discouraging and preferably unusable 4.2 THESIS LIMITATION The thesis possesses the following assumptions: (1) It bases on how Angela Downing analyses English, all analyzed examples quoted from her work, as well as from Newsweek, Tuổi trẻ are contemporary languages, (2) Research methods are valid and reliable, the process of collection data is reliable and appropriate, (3) Terms as modifier, qualifier used in the thesis are genuinely an issue of terminology Modifier is intrinsically biased and qualifier extrinsic, (4) Translation works which are extracted for examples are of good standards Being restricted and confined within its scope and reference resources, the thesis limits its analyses in the ordering of adjectives 109 in pre-modification segments as those of Howard’s analyses of nominal groups as mentioned in the thesis literature review Not being a language teacher, translator, or teacher of translation is obviously one of the major limitations on the thesis to provide with day-to-day empirical data so that findings can be convincingly supported The thesis hopes to accelerate increased interests in future researches in contrastive analyses between Vietnamese and English nominal groups, on one hand, either syntactically, semantically, lexically, pragmatically or culturally On the other hand, other syntactic sentence units of verbal groups, adjevtival groups, prepositional groups, adverbial groups… can also be taken into thorough consideration 110 BIBLIOGRAPHY Reference books In English 1) Angela Downing & Philip Locke (1995) English grammar, Phoenix ELT 2) Anselm Strauss & Juliet Corbin, Basic of qualitative research, Sage Publications 3) Baker, Mona (1992) In Other Words: a Coursebook on Translation, London: Routledge 4) David Nunan (1999) Second language teaching and learning, Heinle & Heinle Publishers 5) David R Krathwohl Method of educational and social science research, Longman 6) Edward Finegan, 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Tái NXB Trẻ 32) Hạo, Cao Xuân (1991) Tiếng Việt – Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức Quyển NXB KHXH 33) Hạo, Cao Xuân (2001) Tiếng Việt – Mấy vấn đề ngữ âm, ngữ pháp, ngữ nghóa NXB Giáo dục 112 34) Hùng, Nguyễn Tiến, Ph D (1986) A course in theory of translation, University of Ho Chi Minh city Department of English 35) Lac, Nguyen Hoa (2000) An outline of syntax, NXB HCM 36) Tâm, Hoàng Xuân; Bằng, Nguyễn Văn; Tươm, Bùi Tất; Hạo, Cao Xuân (2001) Ngữ pháp chức tiếng Việt Quyển Câu tiếng Việt Cấu trúc, nghóa, công dụng, NXB Giáo dục 37) Thản, Nguyễn Kim (1997) Nghiên cứu ngữ pháp tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo dục 38) Thiêm, Lê Quang (1989) Nghiên cứu đối chiếu ngôn ngữ, NXB Đại học giáo dục chuyên nghiệp 39) Tuấn, Vũ Anh (2002), Những di sản giới Việt Nam, NXB Đà Nẵng 40) Tuấn, Vũ Anh (2002), Việt Nam lễ hội cổ truyền, NXB Đà Nẵng 41) Tươm, Bùi Tất, Giáo trình tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo duïc e-Reference In English 42) Avid Sharvan, Constraints on translatability of Arabic, 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74) Dũng, Cao Việt, Suy nghó dịch thuật ngôn ngữ văn chương, http://www.vietnamnet.vn 75) Giáp, Nguyễn Thiện, Thì tiếng Việt, http://ngonngu.net 76) Hạo, Cao Xuân, Ngôn ngữ học đóng góp vào việc tìm hiểu tư văn hoá Việt Nam, http://www.thongluan.org 77) Hiệp, Nguyễn Văn, Vài nét lịch sử nghiên cứu cú pháp tiếng Việt, http://ngonngu.net 78) Nghiệu, Vũ Đức, Góp thêm ý kiến ngữ pháp, ngữ nghóa hai kiểu danh ngữ: hạt dưa…, hạt dưa, http://ngonngu.net 79) Tần, Diệu, Ngôn ngữ văn hoá, http://dactrung.net 80) Tình, Phạm Văn, Im lặng-một nguyên lí hồi tỉnh lược ngữ dụng, http://ngonngu.net 81) Tuấn, Lê Công, Về tượng “cải biên” hay chơi chữ tục ngữ, http://ngonngu.net 82) Tuấn, Lê Công, Về tượng trái nghóa qua số câu tục ngữ, http://ngonngu.net 83) Thành, Nguyễn Đình, Dịch thuật: Đôi điều cần đào saâu, http://www.talawas.org 115 APPENDICES 6.1 ACRONYMS AND NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Cl: clause Clf: finite clause Clnf: non-finite clause Cl-ing: -ing clause SL: Source language TL: Target language Cl-en: -en clause Clinf: infinitive clause VG: verbal group NG: nominal group AdjG: adjectival group PrepG: prepositional group V/v: verb N/n: noun pron: pronoun adj: adjective adv: adverb prep: preposition conj: conjunction det: determinative S: subject P: predicator Od: direct object Oi: indirect object Oprep: prepositional object Cs: subject complement Co: object compliment Cp: predicator complement A: adjunct D: disjunct C: conjunct h: head, HN: head noun m: modifier q: qualifier d: determiner e: epithet cl: classifier x: auxiliary v: main verb [ ]: embedded unit, / /: constituent cuts 6.2 LIST OF DIAGRAMS Diagram 1: Howard's classification of noun 14 Diagram 2: Howard's classification of noun 14 Diagram 3: Howard's classification of pre-modification 15 Diagram 4: Howard's classification of post-modification 17 Diagram 5: Geofrey's classification of noun 19 Diagram 6: Than's classification of noun 25 116 Diagram 7: Ban's classification of noun 28 Diagram 8: Classification of definiteness 44 Diagram 9: Angela's intrinsic elements of NGs 64 Diagram 10: Intrinsic elements of Vietnamese NGs 65 Diagram 11: Angela's overview of NGs structure 80 Diagram 12: An overview of Vietnamese NGs structure 80 Diagram 13: Structure of Vietnamese NGs intrinsic elements 82 Diagram 14: Translation mix 99 Diagram 15: Larson's overview of translation tasks .104 117