Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses

Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses

CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Francisco Delgado-Vargas Octavio Paredes-López Nat ural Colorants for Food and Nutraceutical Uses ©2003 CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-58716-076-5 Library of Congress Card Number 2002031591 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Delgado-Vargas, Francisco. Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses / by Francisco Delgado-Vargas and Octavio Paredes-López. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-58716-076-5 (alk. paper) 1. Coloring matter in food. 2. Pigments. I. Paredes-Lopez, Octavio. II. Title. TP456 .C65 2002 664′.062 dc21 2002031591 ©2003 CRC Press LLC Dedication All great work is the fruit of patience and perseverance, combined with tenacious concentration on a subject over a period of months or even years. Many illustrious scholars have confirmed this when questioned about the secret of their creations. Thus, it is clear beyond doubt that great scientific undertakings require intellectual vigor, as well as severe discipline of the will and continuous subordination of all one's mental powers to an object of study. Two emotions must be unusually strong in the great scientific scholar: a devotion to truth and a passion for reputation. The dominance of these two zeals explains the entire life of the investigator. Only the scholar is expected to fight the current, and in so doing alter the prevailing moral climate. It is important to repeat that his/her mission is not to adapt his/her ideas to those of society; instead, his/her mission is to adapt those of society to his/her own. And in the likely event that he/she is correct and proceeds with disciplined confidence and a minimum of conflict, sooner or later humanity will follow, applaud, and crown him/her with fame. Adapted from Santiago Ramón y Cajal Advice for a Young Investigator, Madrid, 1896 The people of the State of Guanajuato, located in the geographical heart of the Aztec country, have in different ways sponsored both of us and provided us with the willingness, endurance, scientific training, and basic characteristics necessary for scientists, as noted by Cajal, that outstanding mythic figure of Spanish science. They have made the writing of this book on colorants possible and so the authors dedicate this book with great pleasure and gratitude to all Guanajuatenses, who have assigned to science and scientists an importance beyond all expectation. Francisco Delgado-Vargas Octavio Paredes-López ©2003 CRC Press LLC Preface Color is one of the most important sensations of life and the study of its character- istics, measurement and uses is an exciting area of research. Everyone is aware of the reaction chain produced by the impression of color around us; we marvel and wonder at what we see, but no adjective is sufficient to describe our feelings. Color is mood, flavor and quality, and all of these and more are based on harmony and aesthetics. Color, then, is more than subjective, it is mystical. Throughout history color has been an enigma, an incompletely understood phenomenon which has captivated wise men and women and gifted intellects, including Aristotle, Plato, Newton and Da Vinci, among others. The association of light, matter, and color discovered by Newton was like a Pandora’s box: revealing colors’ complexity did not clarify the concept. Colors are acts of light and color is the result of how light is sensed by nature and interpreted by human beings. Nature manifests itself to the sense of sight through colors; eyes are mainly perceptive to light, shade, and color, which together allow us to distin- guish object from object and the parts that constitute each one. Our visible world is made of these three elements and men and women have used them to construct and transform the world: objects have been painted, garments made more beautiful, and food flavor reinforced. Thus, the human being pretends to be like a god by making a more perfect visible world than the actual one can be. We have used color for food, feed, and other commodities since ancient times. Throughout the history of color application, our knowledge about this phenomenon has changed and increased; consequently, the preferred colorants, forms of use, and legislation regulating their uses, among other items, have also changed. Today, for example, natural pigments are the preferred colorants for food applications and they are an exciting area for study. This book deals with natural colorants and their science, technology, and appli- cations; but in order to arrive at a thorough understanding of this subject, the presentation cannot be reduced to such a level of specificity. Therefore, we start with the basics, with creating an understanding of physical colors, which are most beau- tiful. Then color measurement is discussed, including an up-to-date presentation of color’s physiological interpretation. This is a very important aspect because a good and homogeneous pigmentation in foods, feeds, and other commodities is a quality characteristic desired by consumers. Products with good pigmentation are better accepted by consumers and can command higher prices. Legislation is the next major topic analyzed, leading to an understanding of why natural colorants are currently preferred. Inorganic and synthetic colorants as food additives are also included in appropriate places. A brief discussion follows of the distribution, characteristics, and functionality of natural pigments, which leads to the discussion of their applications. ©2003 CRC Press LLC The most important natural pigments are then discussed (carotenoids, anthocy- anins, betalains, and chlorophylls), beginning with the basics and touching on all relevant topics, from molecular aspects to significant industrial applications. Other natural pigments, which are restricted to certain geographical areas, are also included because they have very interesting properties for foods and feeds. Finally, the nutraceutical properties of natural colorants are discussed and contrasted with other well-known nutraceutical components, looking toward the design of new types of food commodities. This book is intended for students and practitioners because it covers both the essentials of colorants and their technological and practical aspects. It starts with easy-to-understand material and goes on to highly specialized concepts and their applications. It should also be useful to both beginning researchers and those from related fields who want to increase their knowledge of natural colorants. While we expect that most readers will have some scientific background and a basic familiarity with color and colorants, we have not assumed any specific prior knowledge, and we have incorporated pertinent explanations throughout the text. In addition to the above-noted benefits, this publication emphasizes the state of the art as well as future trends for all the scientific and technological aspects of this field. We sincerely hope that those seeking information on color, colorants, and especially on natural colorants from the basic to the practical point of view will find our book useful and interesting. We wish to thank the following collaborators and friends for their technical assistance, discussions, and help: Fidel Guevara-Lara, Jose A. Lopez-Valenzuela, Ofelia Mora-Izaguirre, and especially to Jesus Espinoza-Alvarez for the cover design. I (FDV) also wish to thank Alicia Chagolla-Lopez and my family, particularly my unforgettable father, because all of them are very near to my heart and are an essential part of my soul; to all of them because they have always been where and when I needed them, although most of the time I have been away. ©2003 CRC Press LLC Table of Contents Chapter 1Colorants: From the Physical Phenomenon to Their Nutraceutical Properties — An Overview Chapter 2The Color Phenomenon A.Definition B.Human Perception C.Measurement 1.Instrumental Color Measurement 2.The CIE System 3.Opponent-Type Systems References Chapter 3Pigments A.Definition B.A World of Colorless Compounds C.Pigments in Biology D.Molecular Affinities of Pigments E.Natural Distribution of Pigments F.Classification of Food Colors G.Choice and Application of Colors References Chapter 4Pigments as Food Colorants A.Colorants as Food Additives 1.Reasons to Use Color Additives 2.Importance of Natural Colorants B.Safety of Food Colorants 1.Aspects of Legal Regulation of Color Additives 2.Basic Toxicology of Colorant Additives 3.Toxicology of Certifiable Colorants 4.Toxicology of Exempt-from-Certification Colorants References Chapter 5Inorganic and Synthetic Pigments — History, Sources, and Uses A.Inorganic ©2003 CRC Press LLC B.Synthetic 1.General Information 2.Reactions in the Production of Pigments 3.Blends of Synthetic Colorants 4.Color Stability 5.Dye Presentation 6.Lakes C.Analytical Techniques and the Evaluation of Color Purity References Chapter 6Natural Pigments — Global Perspective A.Distribution 1.Tetrapyrrole Derivatives 2.Isoprenoid Derivatives 3.N-Heterocyclic Compounds Other Than Tetrapyrroles 4.Benzopyran Derivatives 5.Quinones 6.Melanins B.Functions 1.Tetrapyrrole Derivatives 2.N-Heterocyclic Compounds Other Than Tetrapyrroles 3.Benzopyran Derivatives 4.Quinones 5.Iridoids 6.Melanins References Chapter 7Carotenoids A.Definition B.Classification and Nomenclature C.Distribution D.Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 1.Biochemistry 2.Biosynthesis Regulation 3.Molecular Biology of Carotenogenesis 4.Molecular Biology as a Biotechnological Tool for Carotenoid Production E.Functions F.Methodological Aspects 1.Extraction 2.Saponification 3.Separation 4.Characterization ©2003 CRC Press LLC G.Carotenoids as Food Colors 1.Annatto 2.Carotenes 3.Dunaliella 4.Haematococcus 5.Marigold 6.Paprika 7.Saffron 8.Tomato 9.Synthetic Carotenoids H.Processing and Stability 1.In Model Systems 2.In Food Systems I.Production of Carotenoids in Bioreactors References Chapter 8Anthocyanins and Betalains A.Anthocyanins 1.Definition 2.Classification 3.Distribution 4.Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology a.Biochemistry b.Biosynthesis Regulation c.Molecular Biology of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis d.Molecular Biology as a Biotechnological Tool in the Manipulation of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis 5.Functions a.Color and Ecological Functions b.Anthocyanins — Photosynthesis and Photoprotection c.Cold Injury and Anthocyanins d.Marker for Good Manufacturing Practices in Food Processing 6.Methodological Aspects a.Extraction b.Separation c.Characterization 7.Anthocyanins as Food Colors 8.Processing and Stability a.In Model Systems b.In Food Systems 9.Production of Anthocyanins by Plant Tissue Culture B.Betalains 1.Definition 2.Classification 3.Distribution ©2003 CRC Press LLC 4.Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology a.Biochemistry b.Biosynthesis Regulation c.Molecular Biology of Betalain Biosynthesis 5.Functions a.Taxonomic Markers b.Ecological and Physiological Aspects 6.Methodological Aspects a.Extraction b.Separation and Purification c.Characterization 7.Betalains as Food Colors 8.Processing and Stability a.In Model Systems b.In Food Systems 9.Production of Betalains by Plant Tissue Culture References Chapter 9Other Natural Pigments A.Chlorophylls 1.Chlorophyll Structures 2.Chlorophyll Degradation, Processing, and Stability 3.Chlorophyll Extraction 4.Isolation of Chlorophylls 5.Chlorophylls as Food Additives B.Caramel 1.Caramel Preparation 2.Caramels as Food Additives 3.Caramel Characterization and Studies of Authenticity C.Turmeric 1.Preparation of Turmeric Products 2.Chemistry of Turmeric Color 3.Turmeric as a Food Additive D.Cochineal, Carmine, and Other Natural Pigments from Insects 1.Cochineal and Carmine a.Pigment Extraction b.As Food Colorants 2.Other Natural Pigments Obtained from Insects E.Monascus 1.Commercial Production 2.Studies on Fermentation Process 3.Applications F.Iridoids References ©2003 CRC Press LLC Chapter 10Chemicals and Colorants as Nutraceuticals A.Fundamentals B.Nutraceuticals and Related Terms — Definitions C.Food Items as Nutraceuticals 1.Plant Materials a.Spices b.Cereals c.Soybean d.Cruciferous Vegetables e.Fruits and Vegetables f.Ginseng (Panax sp.) g.St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatumL.) h.Echinacea (E. pallidaandE. purpurea) 2.Marine Products 3.Probiotics D.Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals 1.Fatty Acids 2.Inulin and Oligofructose 3.Flavonoids 4.Tannins E.Natural Colorants as Nutraceuticals 1.Carotenoids 2.Anthocyanins 3.Betalains 4.Chlorophylls 5.Turmeric a.Control of Lipid Metabolism b.Antimutagenic c.Anticarcinogenic d.Other Biological Activities 6.Monascus 7.Iridoids F.Nutraceuticals — The Perspective 1.The Choice 2.Foods for Specific Needs 3.Markets for Nutraceuticals 4.Nutraceuticals and the New Tendencies References Appendix:List of Abbreviations ©2003 CRC Press LLC [...]... management systems Cereal Foods World 43: 415–417 4 von Goethe, J.W 1997 Theory of Colours MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 5 Henry, B.S 1996 Natural food colours, in Natural Food Colorants G.A.F Hendry and J.D Houghton, Eds Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 40–79 6 Wyszecki, G and W.S Stiles 1967 Color Science Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulas John Wiley & Sons, New York 7 Masland, R.H 1996 Unscrambling... disorders), and flavonoids (to prevent cancer and as anti-inflammatory agent) Food colorants themselves also have nutraceutical properties: • Carotenoids (e.g., to treat cancer and arthritis) • Anthocyanins (e.g., to reduce coronary heart diseases and to treat hypertension and liver disorders); betalains (e.g., antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticarcinogenic agents) • Chlorophylls (e.g., antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic)... antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic) • Turmeric and curcumin (e.g., anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic) • Monascus pigments (e.g., antimutagenic and anti-tumorigenic) Chapter 10 analyzes the trends for development of foods with nutraceutical properties and especially of food products for specific needs, such as those to prevent osteoporosis in older women or beverages for women to diminish their menopause... furniture, and other commodities, especially food (see Chapter 3) The consumer associates food color with safety, quality, and as indicator of good processing Thus, food processors devote a significant proportion of the product cost to preserving or adding color Historically, living species were the first entities used as food colorants, followed by inorganics and synthetics; today, natural colorants. .. Chapter 10 discusses the concepts related to foods and food components as nutraceuticals Poverty and undernutrition are two of the main problems of the underdeveloped world; conversely, overweight in the developed world is becoming a huge problem Chapter 10 describes some nutraceutical uses of several components: • Plant and fish products in the prevention and treatment of health problems • Spices that... cell and tissue culture, but to date no process of industrial importance has been reported ©2003 CRC Press LLC TX765Ch01Frame Page 4 Monday, October 21, 2002 6:42 PM Chapter 9 discusses other natural colorants of importance for food processors: • Chlorophylls are components of fruits and vegetables consumed by humans, and preservation of chlorophyll after food processing is a major task in the food. .. acids and other chemicals that have antimicrobial, antitumor, and antiviral properties • Probiotics and prebiotics to treat gastrointestinal disorders and to prevent cancers Also analyzed in Chapter 10 are the properties of specific substances such as unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic), inulin and oligofructose (designed as prebiotics and used to prevent osteoporosis and. .. areas The processes of production of inorganic and synthetic pigments must be strictly controlled to assure colorants of food- grade quality The survival of synthetic colorants for the food industry is by virtue of their defined composition, which assures color uniformity in the pigmented products; additionally, a large number of colors may be produced and each colorant may be used alone or in blends... unstable, which is the major drawback for its application as food additive Today, U.S legislation permits the use of chlorophylls as additives to dentifrices and drugs, but not to food • Caramels are the most widely utilized food colorant and are manufactured by different procedures to accomplish various requirements of food processors Caramels have been also used by some food processors as adulterant agents,... used for the color evaluation; for the 2° 1931 standard observer, the retina region is the most acute for color detection (fovea).1 The color-matching functions for the 2° CIE observer are shown in Figures 2.8 and 2.6C As can be deduced, color is a point in the tristimulus (x, y, z) space and the graph with all possible colors is known as the CIE chromaticity diagram (Figure 2.9) When two colors C1 and . preferred colorants, forms of use, and legislation regulating their uses, among other items, have also changed. Today, for example, natural pigments are the preferred colorants for food applications and. Data Delgado-Vargas, Francisco. Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses / by Francisco Delgado-Vargas and Octavio Paredes-López. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-58716-076-5. Delgado-Vargas Octavio Paredes-López Nat ural Colorants for Food and Nutraceutical Uses ©2003 CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted