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Fifth Edition, last update March 29, 2009 Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume III – Semiconductors By Tony R Kuphaldt Fifth Edition, last update March 29, 2009 i c °2000-2015, Tony R Kuphaldt This book is published under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License These terms and conditions allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of this document by the general public The full Design Science License text is included in the last chapter As an open and collaboratively developed text, this book is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE See the Design Science License for more details Available in its entirety as part of the Open Book Project collection at: openbookproject.net/electricCircuits PRINTING HISTORY • First Edition: Printed in June of 2000 Plain-ASCII illustrations for universal computer readability • Second Edition: Printed in September of 2000 Illustrations reworked in standard graphic (eps and jpeg) format Source files translated to Texinfo format for easy online and printed publication • Third Edition: Printed in January 2002 Source files translated to SubML format SubML is a simple markup language designed to easily convert to other markups like LATEX, HTML, or DocBook using nothing but search-and-replace substitutions • Fourth Edition: Printed in December 2002 New sections added, and error corrections made, since third edition • Fith Edition: Printed in July 2007 New sections added, and error corrections made, format change ii Contents AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES 1.1 From electric to electronic 1.2 Active versus passive devices 1.3 Amplifiers 1.4 Amplifier gain 1.5 Decibels 1.6 Absolute dB scales 1.7 Attenuators 1 3 14 16 SOLID-STATE DEVICE THEORY 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Quantum physics 2.3 Valence and Crystal structure 2.4 Band theory of solids 2.5 Electrons and “holes” 2.6 The P-N junction 2.7 Junction diodes 2.8 Bipolar junction transistors 2.9 Junction field-effect transistors 2.10 Insulated-gate field-effect transistors (MOSFET) 2.11 Thyristors 2.12 Semiconductor manufacturing techniques 2.13 Superconducting devices 2.14 Quantum devices 2.15 Semiconductor devices in SPICE Bibliography 27 27 28 41 47 50 55 58 60 65 70 73 75 80 83 91 93 DIODES AND RECTIFIERS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Meter check of a diode 3.3 Diode ratings 3.4 Rectifier circuits 3.5 Peak detector 3.6 Clipper circuits 97 98 103 107 108 115 117 iii CONTENTS iv 3.7 Clamper circuits 3.8 Voltage multipliers 3.9 Inductor commutating circuits 3.10 Diode switching circuits 3.11 Zener diodes 3.12 Special-purpose diodes 3.13 Other diode technologies 3.14 SPICE models Bibliography 121 123 130 132 135 143 163 163 172 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The transistor as a switch 4.3 Meter check of a transistor 4.4 Active mode operation 4.5 The common-emitter amplifier 4.6 The common-collector amplifier 4.7 The common-base amplifier 4.8 The cascode amplifier 4.9 Biasing techniques 4.10 Biasing calculations 4.11 Input and output coupling 4.12 Feedback 4.13 Amplifier impedances 4.14 Current mirrors 4.15 Transistor ratings and packages 4.16 BJT quirks Bibliography 175 176 178 181 185 191 204 212 220 224 237 249 258 265 266 271 273 280 JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The transistor as a switch 5.3 Meter check of a transistor 5.4 Active-mode operation 5.5 The common-source amplifier – PENDING 5.6 The common-drain amplifier – PENDING 5.7 The common-gate amplifier – PENDING 5.8 Biasing techniques – PENDING 5.9 Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING 5.10 JFET quirks – PENDING 283 283 285 288 290 299 300 300 300 301 301 INSULATED-GATE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Depletion-type IGFETs 6.3 Enhancement-type IGFETs – PENDING 6.4 Active-mode operation – PENDING 303 303 304 313 313 CONTENTS 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 v The common-source amplifier – PENDING The common-drain amplifier – PENDING The common-gate amplifier – PENDING Biasing techniques – PENDING Transistor ratings and packages – PENDING IGFET quirks – PENDING MESFETs – PENDING IGBTs THYRISTORS 7.1 Hysteresis 7.2 Gas discharge tubes 7.3 The Shockley Diode 7.4 The DIAC 7.5 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 7.6 The TRIAC 7.7 Optothyristors 7.8 The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 7.9 The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) 7.10 Field-effect-controlled thyristors Bibliography 314 314 314 314 314 315 315 315 319 319 320 324 331 331 343 346 346 352 354 356 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers 8.3 The ”operational” amplifier 8.4 Negative feedback 8.5 Divided feedback 8.6 An analogy for divided feedback 8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion 8.8 Averager and summer circuits 8.9 Building a differential amplifier 8.10 The instrumentation amplifier 8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits 8.12 Positive feedback 8.13 Practical considerations 8.14 Operational amplifier models 8.15 Data 357 357 358 362 368 371 374 380 382 384 386 387 390 394 410 415 PRACTICAL ANALOG SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS 9.1 ElectroStatic Discharge 9.2 Power supply circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.3 Amplifier circuits – PENDING 9.4 Oscillator circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.5 Phase-locked loops – PENDING 9.6 Radio circuits – INCOMPLETE 417 417 422 424 424 426 426 CONTENTS vi 9.7 Computational circuits 9.8 Measurement circuits – INCOMPLETE 9.9 Control circuits – PENDING Bibliography 10 ACTIVE FILTERS 435 457 458 458 461 11 DC MOTOR DRIVES 463 11.1 Pulse Width Modulation 463 12 INVERTERS AND AC MOTOR DRIVES 13 ELECTRON TUBES 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Early tube history 13.3 The triode 13.4 The tetrode 13.5 Beam power tubes 13.6 The pentode 13.7 Combination tubes 13.8 Tube parameters 13.9 Ionization (gas-filled) tubes 13.10Display tubes 13.11Microwave tubes 13.12Tubes versus Semiconductors 467 469 469 470 473 475 476 478 478 481 483 487 490 493 A-1 ABOUT THIS BOOK 497 A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST 501 A-3 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE 509 INDEX 513 Chapter AMPLIFIERS AND ACTIVE DEVICES Contents 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.1 From electric to electronic Active versus passive devices Amplifiers Amplifier gain Decibels Absolute dB scales Attenuators 1.7.1 Decibels 1.7.2 T-section attenuator 1.7.3 PI-section attenuator 1.7.4 L-section attenuator 1.7.5 Bridged T attenuator 1.7.6 Cascaded sections 1.7.7 RF attenuators 3 14 16 17 19 20 21 21 23 23 From electric to electronic This third volume of the book series Lessons In Electric Circuits makes a departure from the former two in that the transition between electric circuits and electronic circuits is formally crossed Electric circuits are connections of conductive wires and other devices whereby the uniform flow of electrons occurs Electronic circuits add a new dimension to electric circuits in that some means of control is exerted over the flow of electrons by another electrical signal, either a voltage or a current A-2.2 CREDITS 505 • Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (Oct 2008) Ch 2, s/are in close/are close/ • Radoslav@allaboutcircuits.com (Oct 2008) Ch 8, s/that mA of/that mA/ • Scanman@allaboutcircuits.com (Dec 2008) Ch 2, s/shells are hold/shells hold/ • dgeorge@allaboutcircuits.com (Dec 2008) Ch 7, image 03320.png, swapped anode and anode gate left diagram • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2009) Ch s/than FET’s/than JFET’s • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2009) Ch 8, 13061.png, change formula for inverting gain to include ”-” • dezurtrat@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2009) Ch 3, 03443.png, s/p-p/peak • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 3, s/I would/It would/ • Peter O@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 1, closing parenthesis, above replaced with reference to figure • Nanophotonics@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 9, image 53009.jpg s/courtisy/courtesy • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2009) Ch 8, images 2001.png, 2002.png appearance • D Crunkilton (April 2009) Ch 4, images 23006.png, 23007.png updated • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 7, s/SCR schematic symbol/TRIAC schematic symbol • Peter O’Dette (June 2009) Ch 1, s/is watts/is Watt , s/10 watt/10 Watts , s/ watt/ Watt • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 3, s/being/begin , near ”voltage at which they” s/is/in near ”The diodes must be” • regrehan@allaboutcircuits.com (June 2009) Ch 4, s/r1 1/r1 1k in commonemitter amplifier SPICE list • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2009) Ch 3, s/Note polarity change on coil changed/Note polarity change on coil • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) Ch 4, Swap PNP & NPN at (b) & (c), caption of 03075.png • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) equation typos 03077.png 03479.png • Peter O’Dette@allaboutcircuits.com (August 2009) Ch 2, Numerous changes, and 03409.png 506 APPENDIX A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 4, Beta formula, ”Transistor atings and Packages” • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 3, Image 03288.eps changed polarized capacitor to non-polarized • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/hasre/share/ s/common=emitter/commonemitter/ • Uisge@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch 3, s/once every half-cycle/one half of every full cycle/ , s/much/half/ • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/To maintaining/To maintain • Unregistered Guest@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch s/[model]/[modelname]/ • gareththegeek@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch numerous typos, omissions • Dcrunkilton@allaboutcircuits.com (November 2009) Ch minor chages to text and image 03392.eps • waynerr@allaboutcircuits.com (December 2009) Ch equations and of image 03488.eps • jkenny@allaboutcircuits.com (January 2010) Ch s/will will/will/ • BHijazi@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2010) Ch 1, Clarification of text between images 03378.png and 03379.png • SgtWookiei@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2010) Ch 4, image 03375.png, flipped pnp and battery • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (March 2010) Ch 9, Changes to ESD section • SgtWookiei@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2010) Ch 4, image 03078.png, added resistors • silv3rmOOn@allaboutcircuits.com (April 2010) Ch 4, typo in SPICE listing near image 20004.png • optomist1@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2010) Ch 2, typo s/campared/compared/ • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (July 2010) Ch 11, change [I] to italic tags in dcdrive.sml • Unregistered guest @allaboutcircuits.com (August 2010) Ch 2, s/The bopolar transistor/The bipolar junction transistor/ • Unregistered guest @allaboutcircuits.com (August 2010) Ch 4, A-2.2 CREDITS 507 • D Crunkilton (Sept 2010) Ch s/minuscule/minuscule; Ch ,4 ,5, 7, s/useable/usable • beenthere@allaboutcircuits.com (Oct 2010) Ch 3, AC line powered LED material removed • mulebones@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2011) Ch 3, s/5 Vptp/10 Vptp/ • Skfir@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2011) Ch 1, s/ ource/source/ • Skfir@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2011) Ch 2, 4, A3 s/the the/the/ • Skfir@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2011) Ch 2, s/insulator insulator/insulator/ • Skfir@allaboutcircuits.com (Feb 2011) Ch 3, s/a approximately/at approximately/ , s/frequency my/frequency may/ , s/application a/appliation is as/ , s/been produce/been produced/; Ch4 s/approximage/approximate/ s/resistor is a short/capacitor is a short/ ; s/Iis it/Is it/ s/The the/The/ s/the these/these/, s/distortion distortion/distortion/ • D Crunkilton (June 2011) hi.latex, header file; updated link to openbookproject.net • SamAtOz@allaboutcircuits.com (May 2012) Ch s/occurr/occur s/repells/repels/ , s/is increases/increases , at (c) changed to full reference, • john207@allaboutcircuits.com (May 2012) Ch 4, various • Bill Marsden@allaboutcircuits.com (May 2012) Ch 4, Clarification of text near: Bipolar transistors are contructed • kintzlr@allaboutcircuits.com (January 2013) Ch 4,image 03495.eps corrected Added Ohm symbol to 0.26, above 2600 Ohm • sby64@allaboutcircuits.com (January 2013) Ch 4, caption image 03495.png s/resistance Vth/resistance Rth • keithostertag@allaboutcircuits.com (January 2013) Ch 4, caption image 03495.png s/resistance Vth/resistance Rth • Eugene Smirnoff (January 2013) Ch 2, near ”A SQUID’” s/is an/is a/ s/Superconduction/Superconducting • mrchen@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 3, s/inversely proportional/iverted/ in Common Emitter section • slidercrank@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 1,symbol for neper s/n/Np/ Ch 2, s/Dimitri/Dmitri/, s/always”risky”/always ”risky”/ • triffid hunter@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 3, s/common-base/commonemitter , caption and image 03502.eps in Cascode section • mnada@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 4, s/RB/RE in table near image 03488.png and in image 03488.png 508 APPENDIX A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST • adam555@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 4, change b to Beta in image 03488.png; above 13074.png s/base resistor/emitter resistor After internal resistance: s/RE/REE s+(Beta)REE/IE+(Beta)REE+ • LvW@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 4, change 22 instance of REE to ree in text; same for images: 03489.eps 03494.eps 03495.eps 03497.eps 13062.eps • georacer@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 4, insert bigspcace tag above Bypass Capacitor for R • peek65408@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 4, s/Small emitter base current controls large collector emitter current flowing against emitter arrow/Small Base-Emitter current controls large Collector-Emitter current flowing against emitter arrow/ image:13048.eps changed Euler’s constant to Euler’s Number • tshuck@allaboutcircuits.com (February 2014) Ch 3, insert missing image 03300.png into diode.sml • Roman Kaluzniacki (October 2014) Ch 2, s/principle/principal with respect to ”principal quantum number” • va-sawyer (August 2015) Ch 4, s/0.26mV/26m/ s/Re’/rEE/ Appendix A-3 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE c 1999-2000 Michael Stutz stutz@dsl.org Copyright ° Verbatim copying of this document is permitted, in any medium A-3.1 Preamble Copyright law gives certain exclusive rights to the author of a work, including the rights to copy, modify and distribute the work (the ”reproductive,” ”adaptative,” and ”distribution” rights) The idea of ”copyleft” is to willfully revoke the exclusivity of those rights under certain terms and conditions, so that anyone can copy and distribute the work or properly attributed derivative works, while all copies remain under the same terms and conditions as the original The intent of this license is to be a general ”copyleft” that can be applied to any kind of work that has protection under copyright This license states those certain conditions under which a work published under its terms may be copied, distributed, and modified Whereas ”design science” is a strategy for the development of artifacts as a way to reform the environment (not people) and 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this License is found to be in conflict with the law, that part shall be interpreted in its broadest meaning consistent with the law, and no other parts of the License shall be affected APPENDIX A-3 512 A-3.8 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE No warranty THE WORK IS PROVIDED ”AS IS,” AND COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE A-3.9 Disclaimer of liability IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS WORK, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS [$Id: dsl.txt,v 1.25 2000/03/14 13:14:14 m Exp m $] Index α ratio, 212, 266 β ratio, 188, 266 10-50 milliamp signal, 381 4-20 milliamp signal, 381 4-layer diode, 324 741 operational amplifier, 363 A-weighted dB scale, 14 A/D converter, 367 AC-DC power supply schematic, 335 Active device, Active mode, transistor, 185 Alpha ratio, 212, 266 Amplification, definition, Amplifier, differential, 359 Amplifier, inverting, 373 Amplifier, noninverting, 373 Amplifier, single-ended, 359 Analog-to-digital converter, 367 Angular Momentum quantum number, 33 Anti-static foam, 289 Antilogarithm, 10 Artifact, measurement, 452 Astable, 393 Attenuator, 16 Attenuator, bridged T, 21 Attenuator, coaxial, 23 Attenuator, L, 21 Attenuator, PI, 20 Attenuator, rf, 23 Attenuator, T, 19 Avalanche photodiode, 153 Averager, 382 Band, electron, 47 Bandwidth, amplifier, 258 Bardeen, John, 60, 65 Beam power tube, 476 Bel, Beta ratio, 188, 266 Beta ratio, bipolar transistor, 481 Beta variations, 189 Bias current, op-amp, 400 Bias, BJT, base, 237 Bias, BJT, calculations, 237 Bias, BJT, collector-feedback, 238 Bias, BJT, emitter, 239 Bias, BJT, voltage divider, 245 Bias, diode, 98 Bias, transistor, 197, 224 Bilateral, 296 Bipolar-mode MOSFET, 316 Bistable, 391 Brattain, Walter, 60, 65 Breakdown, diode, 102 Breakdown, transistor, 329 Breakover, thyristor, 329 Bridge rectifier circuit, 111 Bridge rectifier circuit, polyphase, 111 Bypass capacitor, 263 Calculus, 362, 388, 440 Capacitance, diode, 108 Capacitor, bypass, 263 Capacitor, coupling, 233 Capacitor, op-amp compensation, 406 Cascode amplifier, 220 Cat-Eye tube, 488 Cathode, 473 Cathode Ray Tube, 487 Center-tap rectifier circuit, 109 Characteristic curves, transistor, 188, 295 Check valve, 98 Clamper circuit, 121 513 INDEX 514 Class A amplifier operation, 225 Class AB amplifier operation, 226 Class B amplifier operation, 225 Class C amplifier operation, 227 Class D amplifier operation, 227 Class, amplifier operation, 225 Clipper circuit, 117 clipper, zener diode, 142 CMRR, 395 Cockcroft-Walton, voltage multiplier, 128 Coherent light, 151 Cold-cathode tube, 484 COMFET, 316 Common-base amplifier, 212 Common-collector amplifier, 204 Common-emitter amplifier, 191 Common-mode rejection ratio, 395 Common-mode voltage, 395 Commutating diode, 130, 131 Commutation, 131 Commutation time, diode, 108 Commutation, forced, 352, 353 Commutation, natural, 335, 353 Comparator, 365 Compensation capacitor, op-amp, 406 Conduction band, 48 Conductivity-Modulated Field-Effect Transistor, 316 Constant-current diode, 162 Controlled rectifier, 340 Conventional flow, 98 Cooper pair, 80 Coupling capacitor, 233 Coupling loop, resonator, 490, 493 Critical rate of voltage rise, 330, 332 Crossover distortion, 496 Crowbar, 335 CRT, 487 Crystal radio, 426 Current mirror, 266 Current source, 186, 380 Current sourcing vs sinking, 269 Current, diode leakage, 108 Current-limiting diode, 162 Current-regulating diode, 162 Curve, characteristic, 188, 295 Cutoff voltage, 287 Cutoff, transistor, 179, 185 Czochralski process, silicon , 75 Darlington pair, 211 Datasheet, component, 107 dB, dB, absolute power measurements, 15, 16 dB, sound measurements, 14 dBA, 14 dBk, 16 dBm, 15 dBW, 16 DC restorer circuit, 121 Decibel, Decibels, attenuator, 17 Decineper, 13 Degenerative feedback, 258 Derivative, calculus, 441 DIAC, 331 Differential amplifier, 359 Differential pair, 410, 411 Differentiation, 362 Differentiation, calculus, 388, 440 Diode, 98 Diode check, meter function, 104, 182 Diode equation, the, 101 Diode junction capacitance, 108 Diode leakage current, 108 Diode PIV rating, 102 Diode tube, 473 Diode, 4-layer, 73 Diode, constant-current, 162 Diode, Esaki, 144 Diode, four-layer, 324 Diode, hot carrier, 143, 158 Diode, IMPATT, 160 Diode, laser, 150 Diode, light-activated, 152 Diode, light-emitting, 146 diode, MIIM, 85 diode, MIM, 163 Diode, pin, 159 Diode, PNPN, 324 Diode, schottky, 143 Diode, Shockley, 324 INDEX Diode, snap, 159 Diode, SPICE, 163 Diode, tunnel, 144 Diode, varactor, 158 Diode, varicap, 158 Diode, zener, 136 DIP, 363 Discharge tube, 485 Distortion, amplifier, 258 Distortion, crossover, 496 dn, 13 Double-layer tunneling transistor, 84 Drift, op-amp, 406 Dropout, thyristor, 329 Dual Inline Package, 363 Dual power supply, 359 Duty cycle, square wave, 366 Duty cycle, squarewave, 227 Edison effect, 471 Effect, Edison, 471 Electrode, cathode, 473 Electrode, grid, 472 Electrode, screen, 475 Electrode, suppressor, 478 Electron, 28 Electron flow, 98 Emitter follower, 207 Emitter-follower amplifier, 204 Equation, diode, 101 Equilibrium, 368 Esaki diode, 144 Exclusion principle, 36 Failure mode, zener diode, 136 Faraday’s Law, 130, 131 Feedback, amplifier, 258 Feedback, negative, 368 Feedback, positive, 390 FET, field effect transistor, 65 Field effect transistor , 65 Firing, thyristor, 329 Flash converter, 367 Floating, 179, 332 Flow, electron vs conventional, 98 Foam, anti-static, 289 515 Forced commutation, 352, 353 Forward bias, 98 Forward voltage, diode, 100 Four-layer diode, 324 Frequency response, op-amp, 406 Full-wave rectifier circuit, 109, 111 Gain, Gain, AC versus DC, Gate turn off switch, 73 Gate-Controlled Switch, 332 Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, 332 GCS, 332 Glow tube, 486 Grid, 472 Ground, 358 Ground, virtual, 373 GTO, 332 GTO, gate turn off switch, 73 Half-wave rectifier circuit, 108 Harmonic, 344 Harmonic, even vs odd, 344 Harmonics and waveform symmetry, 344 Heptode, 479 hfe, 189 High temperature superconductors:, 82 Holding current, SCR, 334 hot carrier diode, 143 Hot-cathode tube, 484 Hybrid parameters, 189 Hysteresis, 391, 484 IC, 269 IGBT, 316, 355 IGFET, insulated gate field effect transistor, 70 IGT, 316, 355 IMPATT diode, 160 Inductive output tube, 490 Inert elements, 38 Input, inverting, 360 Input, noninverting, 360 Insulated gate field effect transistor, 70 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor, 316, 355 Insulated-Gate Transistor, 316, 355 INDEX 516 Integrated circuit, 269 Integration, calculus, 388, 440 Inverting amplifier, 194, 373 Inverting summer, 383 Ionization, 320, 483 JFET, junction field effect transistor, 65 Josephson junctions, 80 Josephson transistor, 81 Joule’s Law, 11, 136 Junction capacitance, diode, 108 Kickback, inductive, 130 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law, 177 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law, 207 Klystron, 490 Laser diode, 150 Laser light, 151 Latch-up, 398 Latching, thyristor, 329 Leakage current, diode, 102, 108 LED, 146 Light-emitting diode, 146 Lilienfeld, Julius, 65 Load line, 228 Logarithm, 10 Magic-Eye tube, 488 Magnetic quantum number, 33 Magnetic tunnel junction, 88 Mechanics, quantum, 32 MESFET, metal semiconductor field effect transistor, 68 Metal oxide field effect transistor, 70 Mho, 298 Microphonics, electron tube, 495 MIIM, diode, 85 Miller effect, 279 MIM diode, 163 Monochromatic light, 151 MOS Controlled Thyristor, 354 MOS-gated thyristor, 354 MOSFET, metal oxide field effect transistor, 70 MTJ, magnetic tunnel junction, 88 Mu, tube amplification factor, 479 Multiplier circuit, diode, 123 Multiplier, frequency, varactor, 424 Natural commutation, 335, 353 Negative feedback, 258, 368 Negative resistance, 144 Neper, 13 Neutron, 28 Noble elements, 38 Noninverting amplifier, 373 Noninverting summer, 383 Number, quantum, 33 Offset null, op-amp, 399 Offset voltage, op-amp, 398 Ohmic region, JFET, 297 Op-amp, 264, 363 Operational amplifier, 264, 363 Orbital, electron, 35 Oscillator, 258 Oscillator, op-amp, 393 oscillator, phase shift, 424 Oscillator, relaxation, 321 Oscillator, voltage-controlled, 491 Over-unity machine, Passive averager, 382 Passive device, Pauli, exclusion principle, 36 PCB, 106 Peak detector, 115 Pentagrid tube, 479 Pentode tube, 308 Perpetual motion machine, Phase shift, op-amp, 407 Photodiode, 152 Photodiode amplifier, 457 Photodiode, APD, 153 Photodiode, PIN, 153 PI-network , 17 PIN diode, 159 PIN, photodiode, 153 Pinch-off voltage, 287 PIV rating, diode, 102 Plasma, 320, 483 INDEX PNPN diode, 324 Polyphase bridge rectifier circuit, 111 Positive feedback, 258, 320, 390 Power supply schematic, AC-DC, 335 Principal quantum number, 33 Printed circuit board, 106 Process variable, 361 Programmable unijunction transistor, 349 Proton, 28 Pulse-width modulation, 366 Push-pull amplifier, 225 PWM, 366 Quantum dot, 86 Quantum dot transistor, 86 Quantum mechanics, 32 Quantum number, 33 Quantum physics, 28 quantum tunneling, 83 Quiescent, 228 Radio, crystal, 426 Rail voltage, 370 Rectifier, 98 Rectifier circuit, 108 Rectifier circuit, full-wave, 109, 111 Rectifier circuit, half-wave, 108 Rectifier, controlled, 340 Reference junction, thermocouple, 400 Reflex klystron, 491 Regenerative feedback, 258, 320 Regulator, voltage, 209 Relaxation oscillator, 321 Resistance, negative, 144 Resonant tunneling diode, 84 Restorer circuit, 121 Reverse bias, 98 Reverse recovery time, diode, 108 Reverse voltage rating, diode, 102 Rheostat, 190, 298 Richter scale, Ripple voltage, 113 Runaway, thermal, 261 s,p,d,f subshell notation, 34 Saturable reactor, 517 Saturation voltage, 370 Saturation, transistor, 179, 185 Schottky diode, 143 SCR, 331, 487 SCR bridge rectifier, 340 SCR, silicon controlled rectifier, 73 Screen, 475 SCS, 352 Secondary emission, 476 Semiconductor, defined, 48 Sensitive gate, SCR, 334 Setpoint, 361 Shell, electron, 33 Shockley diode, 324 Shockley, William, 60, 65, 73 Siemens, 298, 381 Signal, 10-50 milliamp, 381 Signal, 4-20 milliamp, 381 Silicon controlled rectifier, 73 Silicon-controlled rectifier, 331, 487 Silicon-controlled switch, 352 Single-ended amplifier, 359 Sink, current, 269 Slicer circuit, 117 Slide rule, 10 Small-scale integration, 411 Snap diode, 159 Snubber, 131 Solar cell, 154 Solid-state, Sound intensity measurement, 14 Spark gap, 484 SPICE, diode, 163 Spin quantum number, 33 Spintronics, 88 Split power supply, 359 SQUID:, 81 SSI, 411 Step recovery diode, 159 Subshell notation, 34 Subshell, electron, 34 Superconduction quantum interference device, 81 Superconductivity, 79 Superposition theorem, 233 Suppressor, 478 INDEX 518 Switching time, diode, 108 T-network , 17 Tetrode tube, 308, 475 Theorem, Superposition, 233 Thermal runaway, BJT, 261 Thermal voltage, diode, 101 Thermocouple, 400 Three-phase bridge rectifier circuit, 111 Thyratron, 487 Thyratron tube, 322 Thyristor, 73, 484 Time, diode switching, 108 Totalizer, 389 Transconductance, 298, 381 Transconductance amplifier, 381 Transistor, field effect, 65 Transistor, insulated gate field effect, 70 Transistor, Josephson, 81 Transistor, metal oxide field effect, 70 Transistor, programmable unijunction, 349 Transistor, single electron, 86 Transistor, unijunction, 346 Triode tube, 308, 322, 473 Tube, discharge, 485 Tunnel diode, 144 Tunnel junction, magnetic, 88 tunneling, quantum, 83 Unijunction transistor, 346 Unipolar, conduction, 65 Unit, bel, Unit, decineper, 13 Unit, mho, 298 Unit, neper, 13 Unit, siemens, 298, 381 Valence band, 48 Valence shell, 34 Valve, “check”, 98 Varactor diode, 158 Varicap diode, 158 VCO, 323 Virtual ground, 373 VMOS transistor, 316 Voltage buffer, 370 Voltage doubler circuit, 123 Voltage follower, 207, 370 Voltage multiplier circuit, 123 Voltage multiplier, Cockcroft-Walton, 128 Voltage regulator, 209 Voltage regulator tube, 486 Voltage rise, critical rate of, 330, 332 Voltage, bias, 197, 224 Voltage, common-mode, 395 Voltage, forward, 100 Voltage, op-amp output saturation, 370 Voltage, ripple, 113 Voltage-controlled oscillator, 323, 491 Volume units, 15 VU scale, 15 Waveform symmetry and harmonics, 344 Zener diode, 136 Zener diode failure mode, 136 Zener diode, clipper, 142 INDEX 519