Journal of ASTM International Selected Technical Papers STP 1506 Advances in Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring and Measurement JAI Guest Editors Sankara Papavinasam Neal S Berke Sean Brossia Journal of ASTM International Selected Technical Papers STP1506 Advances in Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring and Measurement JAI Guest Editors: Sankara Papavinasam Neal S Berke Sean Brossia ASTM International 100 Barr Harbor Drive PO Box C700 West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Printed in the U.S.A ASTM Stock #: STP1506 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Advances in electrochemical techniques for corrosion monitoring and measurement / guest editors, Sankara Papavinasam, Neal S Berke, Sean Brossia p cm (Journal of ASTM International special technical publication; STP1506) Papers from a symposium held May 22-23, 2007 in Norfolk, Virginia Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8031-5522-0 (alk paper) Corrosion and anti-corrosives Measurement Congresses Nondestructive testing Congresses Electrochemical analysis Congresses I Papavinasam, Sankara, 1962-II Berke, Neal Steven, 1952-III Brossia, Sean TA462.A238 2009 2009042261 620.1’1223 dc22 Copyright © 2009 ASTM INTERNATIONAL, West Conshohocken, PA All rights reserved This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or in part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of the publisher Journal of ASTM International „JAI… Scope The JAI is a multi-disciplinary forum to serve the international scientific and engineering community through the timely publication of the results of original research and critical review articles in the physical and life sciences and engineering technologies These peer-reviewed papers cover diverse topics relevant to the science and research that establish the foundation for standards development within ASTM International Photocopy Rights Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use, or the internal, personal, or educational classroom use of specific clients, is granted by ASTM International provided that the appropriate fee is paid to ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, P.O Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, Tel: 610-832-9634; online: http://www.astm.org/copyright The Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements and opinions expressed in this publication ASTM International does not endorse any products represented in this publication Peer Review Policy Each paper published in this volume was evaluated by two peer reviewers and at least one editor The authors addressed all of the reviewers’ comments to the satisfaction of both the technical editor(s) and the ASTM International Committee on Publications The quality of the papers in this publication reflects not only the obvious efforts of the authors and the technical editor(s), but also the work of the peer reviewers In keeping with long-standing publication practices, ASTM International maintains the anonymity of the peer reviewers The ASTM International Committee on Publications acknowledges with appreciation their dedication and contribution of time and effort on behalf of ASTM International Citation of Papers When citing papers from this publication, the appropriate citation includes the paper authors, ‘‘paper title’’, J ASTM Intl., volume and number, Paper doi, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, Paper, year listed in the footnote of the paper A citation is provided as a footnote on page one of each paper Printed in Bridgeport, NJ November, 2009 Foreword THIS COMPILATION OF THE JOURNAL OF ASTM INTERNATIONAL (JAI) STP 1506, on Advances in Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring and Measurement, contains only papers published in JAI that were presented at a symposium in Norfolk, VA, on May 23, 2007 and sponsored by ASTM Committee G01 on Corrosion of Metals The JAI Guest Editors are Dr Sankara Papavinasam, CANMET, Materials Technology Laboratory, OTTAWA, ON, CANADA, Neal S Berke, W R Grace & Company Construction Products, Cambridge, MA, USA, and Sean Brossia, DNV Columbus, Dublin, OH, USA Contents Overview vii Keynote Papers Electrochemical Techniques in Corrosion: Status, Limitations, and Needs G S Frankel Development of Electrochemical Standards for Corrosion Testing S W Dean 41 New Experimental Set-up Use of Coupled Multi-Electrode Arrays to Advance the Understanding of Selected Corrosion Phenomena H Cong, F Bocher, N D Budiansky, M F Hurley, and J R Scully 69 A Review of Coupled Multielectrode Array Sensors for Corrosion Monitoring and a Study on the Behaviors of the Anodic and Cathodic Electrodes L Yang and K T Chiang 105 On Using Laboratory Measurements to Predict Corrosion Service Lives for Engineering Applications R E Ricker 127 New Methods of Analysis Study of Corrosion Initiation of a Steel Panel from a Defect in Coating Using Localized Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy „LEIS… X Wu, T Wang, E Montalvo, T Provder, C Handsy, and W Shen 143 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Measurement during Cathodic Disbondment Experiment of Pipeline Coatings S Papavinasam, M Attard, and R W Revie 160 New Techniques Measuring the Repassivation Potential of Alloy 22 Using the PotentiodynamicGalvanostatic-Potentiostatic Method K J Evans and R B Rebak 189 Comparison of Corrosion Rate Measurement of Copper, Zinc, and C1018 Steel Using Electrochemical Frequency Modulation and Traditional Methods D Loveday and R Rodgers 211 Performance of An Enzyme Electrode Designed for a Sulfide Monitoring Biosensor R Sooknah, S Papavinasam, M Attard, R W Revie, W Douglas Gould, and O Dinardo 226 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance Technique to Monitor External Polymeric Pipeline Coatings S Papavinasam, M Attard, and R W Revie 240 Advances in Field Applications Comparison of Measurements Provided by Several Corrosion Rate Meters with Modulated Confinement of the Current I Martinez, C Andrade, E Marie-Victoire, V Bouteiller, and N Rebolledo Corrosion of Phosphoric Irons in Acidic Environments G Sahoo and R Balasubramaniam Crevice Corrosion of Grade-12 Titanium X He, J J Noël, and D W Shoesmith Measurement of Corrosion Potentials of the Internal Surface of Operating HighPressure Oil and Gas Pipelines A Demoz, S Papavinasam, K Michaelian, and R W Revie 259 271 281 300 Author Index 313 Subject Index 315 Overview While the foundation of electrochemistry were established in the 17th and 18th century by the work of Galvani, Volta, Davy, Faraday, Ritter, and Daniell, it was during the later part of the 19th century that electrochemical methods of monitoring corrosion rates were established During this period many advances - in both the theoretical and practical aspects - were made including: • the development of the relationship between the rate of electrochemical reaction to the overpotential (1905, Tafel Equation), • the establishment of the linkage between thermodynamics (electrode potential) and kinetics (corrosion current) (1929, Evans diagram), • the development of local anodes and local cathodes (1938, Wagner and Traud), • the introduction of the term ⬙potentiostat⬙ (1942, Hickling), • the development of the potential and pH diagram (1950s, Pourbaix), • the discovery of correlation between inversion of polarization resistance to the general corrosion rate (1957, Stern and Geary Equation), • development of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (1960s, Epelboin), and • the observation of potential fluctuations (1968, Iverson) By the latter part of the 19th century, electrochemical techniques for measuring corrosion rates, at least in the laboratory, were firmly established This was made possible due to the commercial availability of highimpedance electrometers for measuring electrode potentials, electronic potentiostats to conduct potentiodynamic measurements, and zero-resistance ammeters It was at this juncture that ASTM G01 Corrosion Committee (1964) and ASTM G01.11 (originally as subcommittee XI) Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Measurements Sub-Committee (1965) were established Over the past half century, the G01 Committee sponsored over 50 symposia Almost all symposia sponsored by G01 Committee have had at least one or two papers dealing with electrochemical techniques for measuring or monitoring corrosion rates Two Special Technical Publications (STPs) that dealt exclusively on electrochemical techniques are: • STP 1188: Electrochemical impedance: Analysis and Interpretation • STP 1277: Electrochemical noise measurement for corrosion applications ASTM Committee G01 on Corrosion of Metals and its Subcommittee G01.11: Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring, organized a symposium on ⬙Advances in Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring and Measurement⬙ May 22-23, 2007 in Norfolk, Virginia The main objective of the symposium was to discuss advances in electrochemical vii techniques for corrosion monitoring and measurement, modeling, life prediction, and to identify potential areas for developing new standards At the symposium, 27 papers were presented Fifteen peer-reviewed papers from the symposium are collected in this STP The papers are arranged in five sections: • Keynote Papers, • New Experimental Set Up • New Methods of Analysis • New Techniques • Advances in Field Applications Keynote Papers In his keynote paper, Dr Frankel describes available electrochemical and non-electrochemical test methods and highlights the importance of proper design of experimental tests He indentifies four possible combinations in which electrochemical techniques can be used and points unfilled needs for each one of the four categories • For metals in solution, electrochemical techniques have been used successfully to monitor uniform corrosion and to characterize passive metals, but application of electrochemical techniques for localized corrosion, especially for measuring the kinetics, requires further development • For metals in atmosphere, there is no good electrochemical technique available at present Standardized procedures for electrochemical monitoring should be pursued • For coated metals in solution, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique is well suited Even though several equivalent circuits (ECs) have been developed, it is yet to be determined which EC should be used under what conditions • The life-time prediction of coated metals in atmosphere is difficult due to the absence of useful electrochemical techniques In the second keynote paper, Dean reviews the historical evolution of electrochemical techniques for corrosion testing Advances made during the 1950s and 1960s resulted in the widespread usage of electrochemical techniques During the 1960s, ASTM Committee G-1 on the Corrosion of Metals and Alloys established Subcommittee G01.11 (originally Subcommittee XI) to address three problems that had been inhibiting the development of electrochemical tests: • Lack of reproducibility of electrochemical tests and the lack of understanding of the variation in results, • Absence of standardized procedures for carrying out the tests, and • Use of several conventions to present electrochemical data that made interpreting the test results difficult Between the 1960s and 1990s, this subcommittee developed the followings standards to address these three issues • ASTM G3 to address conventions for use in presenting results of elecviii trochemical tests • ASTM G102 to provide guidance on interpreting data from electrochemical tests • ASTM G5 as a reference test method to provide an understanding of the reproducibility of polarization curves • ASTM G59 to provide a reference test method for running potentiodynamic polarization resistance measurements • ASTM G61 as a reference test method to demonstrate the tendency of passive metals to resist localized corrosion in chloride containing environments • ASTM G100 to evaluate the behavior of aluminum alloys in chloride environments where pitting corrosion can cause serious damage • ASTM G106 as a reference method to use the EIS technique to evaluate corrosion mechanism • ASTM G69 to determine the degree to which copper and zinc are in solid solution in aluminum alloys • ASTM G108 to detect sensitization of UNS S30403 stainless steel in nuclear power plants • ASTM G150 to determine the critical pitting temperature for stainless steel alloys Based on the experience gained from the widespread usage of these standards, Dean identifies the following areas on which ASTM G01.11 SubCommittee should focus: • Expansion of ASTM G102 to cover calculations from EIS data, to provide guidelines to analyze impedance data from coated specimens (reiterating the views of Frankel), and to handle polarization resistance information when both cathodic and anodic reactions have significant diffusion limitation components • Expansion of ASTM G108 by standardizing the double-loop method and by including other stainless steel alloys • Development of a reference test method for the electrochemical-noise technique New Experimental Set Up Because localized corrosion is one of the predominant mechanisms for metal failure in many industries, several techniques are being developed to investigate this phenomenon Among these techniques, the coupled multielectrode array (MEA) technique shows the most promise MEAs are arrays of electrically isolated electrodes, connected by zero-resistance ammeters The array electrodes may be made up of either the same material or different materials Cong et al demonstrate the ability of MEAs to determine the current for individual electrodes allowing simultaneous spatial and temporal measurements By interrogating each electrode under open-circuit conditions, they establishd that persistent anodes on copper surfaces that will develop into sites for pits to initiate and propagate can be identified by MEA They also ix DEMOZ ET AL., doi:10.1520/JAI101244 303 The reference element was insulated from all parts of the access assembly and a lead connected to it passed through the center of the stainless steel rod The potentials were acquired using an analog-to-digital PC card The power source for the PC was a 600-W inverter powered by a motor vehicle The reference electrode was connected to the low-level input of the acquisition card and the lead from the test pipe was fed to the high-level input, conforming to the conventional way of measuring pipe potential The potential was recorded after the reference electrode has been securely placed inside the flowing line The data were acquired at a rate of 0.3 Hz, for a total of 512 points This acquisition rate was sufficient to record the steady-state corrosion potential Results Internal Potential in Pipe A 共8-in Horizontal Sweet Pipe兲 This pipeline was fed by several gathering lines that had their own integritymanagement programs; including batch and continuous chemical inhibition for corrosion control The pipe was in service without interruption from the date of installation for 1357 days The chemical composition of the brine transported in the pipeline is presented in Table The corrosion potential was measured when the pipeline was in service Figure presents the corrosion potential of the internal surface of the 8-in pipe measured immediately after the reference electrode was placed inside the line The figure indicates relatively minor changes in the potential Potentials recorded h after insertion of the reference electrode into the pipe revealed more anodic internal potentials, as shown in Fig The change in potential in so brief a period was likely attributable to the fouling of the reference electrode by the fluid This fouling effect was corrected by taking the potential intercept of the plot of average corrosion potential values per session versus time, as shown in Fig The intercept is the steady-state potential without the fouling effect When measured using this method, the corrosion potential of the 8-in sweet pipe was −0.52 V versus the Ag/ AgCl reference electrode 共Table 3兲 At the end of the field trial, the pipe section was removed and the pipe cut open to examine its internal surface The bottom half of the test pipe was rusty in color and had clay deposits, whereas the top half of the pipe was covered with wax deposit The thickness of the wax increased progressively towards the 12 o’clock position from either direction 共that is, the top of the pipe兲 The coverage was particularly heavy between the 10–12 o’clock and the 2–12 o’clock positions A spatula was used to scrape some of the wax from the top surface so that it could be seen more clearly The corrosion at areas coated with wax was minimal to nonexistent The brown layer, found on the bottom half of the pipe, consisted mainly of clay, soil material, and corrosion products X-ray diffraction 共XRD兲 analyses 共Table 4兲 of the corrosion products indicated that siderite 共55 % 兲 was the main constituent 304 JAI • STP 1506 ON CORROSION MONITORING TABLE 2—Chemical compositions 共in ppm兲 of brine solutions from the three fields Element Br− Ca2+ Cl− CNO− CNS− F− Fe Fe2+ K+ Mg2+ Na+ NH3 NH+4 NO−2 NO2− PO3+ S− S2O2− SO2− SO2− Horizontal sweet 共Pipe A兲 19 8.87 2,000 ⬍10 ⬍10 ⬍2 0.26 6.63 2.62 1749 4 ⬍2 ⬍1 ⬍20 10.8 ⬍10 ⬍20 18 Horizontal sour 共Pipe B兲 117 1755 51 000 ⬍10 ⬍10 ⬍2 ⬍0.15 ⬍1 426 299 25 830 108 114 ⬍2 ⬍1 ⬍20 604 ⬍20 1618 Horizontal sour 共Pipe C兲 ⬍10 1282 48 000 12 ⬍10 ⬍2 n.d ⬍1 777 903 29 210 64 68 ⬍2 35 ⬍20 12.3 14 ⬍20 ⬍10 FIG 2—Internal potential of Pipe A 共8 in.兲 immediately after introducing the reference electrode into the pipe DEMOZ ET AL., doi:10.1520/JAI101244 305 FIG 3—Internal potential of Pipe A 共8 in.兲 h after introducing the reference electrode into the pipe Internal Potential in Pipe B 共3-in Horizontal Sour Pipe兲 The pipe was in service for a total of 1250 days The XRD analysis of the sample from the internal surface is given in Table 5; it shows the presence of amor- FIG 4—Dependence of internal potential on exposure to the produced fluid for pipe A Each point represents the mean of 512 points acquired during one session of measurement 306 JAI • STP 1506 ON CORROSION MONITORING TABLE 3—Internal potentials of pipes measured using an Ag/ AgCl reference electrode Pipe A B C Diameter, in 3 Internal potential, V −0.52 −0.47 −0.39 Major corrosion products FeCO3 FeS Mixture of iron oxides, sulphides, and carbonates phous carbon even after washing with toluene The corrosion products contained only a small amount of siderite The other major constituents of the corrosion products were iron hydroxides and oxides Measurements in the pipes indicated that the reference element frequently became fouled by the fluid In light of the plethora of reactive ions present in produced fluids, fouling was to be expected Gas bubbles and oil layers caused electrical discontinuity leading to spurious potentials that had nothing to with the true electrochemical potential fluctuations Therefore, it was only reasonable to isolate the reference element from the produced fluid, while at the same time maintaining electrical contact Cladding the reference element with semi-permeable hydrophilic membranes, such as Nafion™, did not solve the TABLE 4—Composition determined by XRD of the main components of the corrosion products in the 8-in horizontal sweet pipe 共Pipe A兲 Mineral Goethite Hematite Magnetite Mackinawite Siderite Quartz Formula FeO共OH兲 Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FeS FeCO3 SiO2 Composition, % 23 55 TABLE 5—Composition determined by XRD of the main components of the corrosion products from the 3-in horizontal sour pipe 共Pipe B兲 Mineral phase Lepidocrocite Magnetite Wuestite Mackinawite Siderite Cristobalite Iron Formula FeO共OH兲 Fe3O4 FeO FeS FeCO3 High-SiO2 ␣-Fe Composition, % 16 37 10 12 DEMOZ ET AL., doi:10.1520/JAI101244 307 FIG 5—Reference electrode housing made from Delrin™ that prevents fouling problem Such membranes performed well when current was passing across them, but they were not helpful in making potential measurements because the readings were spurious and quite unreliable Ceramic tips and zirconia plugs that are commonly used for external pipeline potential measurements, as in cathodic protection, were tried, but they too were found to be inadequate because the junction suffered plugging by oil A cell housing to prevent mixing of the reference solution and produced fluid was therefore fabricated Figure is a photo of this cell The cell housing 共fabricated from a 2-in Delrin™ rod兲 had a solid junction disk made out of KCl-impregnated hardwood and is shown in detail in Fig The junctions 1 fitted to the cell housing were in thick and about in in diameter and had sufficient conductivity Examination of the internal surface of the cell showed no signs of oil breaking across this junction With this arrangement, reference element poisoning was eliminated and the standard reference internal solution was maintained The solid junction and Delrin body had to fit tightly so that fluid could not enter through small openings Figure shows a representative corrosion potential measurement of the internal surface of the 3-in pipe over a period of 512 s The corrosion potential was stable during this period, and the mean corrosion potential was a reasonable representation of the corrosion potential of the internal surface of the pipe The average corrosion potential values measured over a 1-h period are given in Fig The corrosion potential of the 3-in pipe was −0.47 V versus Ag/ AgCl 共Table 3兲 Internal Potential in Pipe C 共3-in Horizontal Sour Pipe兲 Pipe C was in service for a total of 1449 days, during which time the original wellhead connected to the line was not functioning for 157 days 共between service days 780 and 937兲 The line was switched to a second well on day 937 During the transition period of transfer between the two wells, the pipe was 308 JAI • STP 1506 ON CORROSION MONITORING FIG 6—Solid junction made from dowel that was highly impregnated with potassium chloride filled with stagnant fluids The new wellhead was on the same pad as the old one, approximately 10 m away The two wells were approximately 400 m apart so the fluids in both wells would have essentially the same composition The corrosion measurements in this 3-in pipe were completed during the first year of operation using the method described above Figure illustrates the corrosion potential of the internal surface of the 3-in test pipe; it shows FIG 7—Internal potential of Pipe B 共3 in.兲 DEMOZ ET AL., doi:10.1520/JAI101244 309 FIG 8—Internal potential 共mean values兲 of Pipe B 共3 in.兲 negligible slope and steady potential A total of six measurements were made, each for a period of h, from which the average value was determined to be −0.39± 0.01 V versus Ag/ AgCl 共Table 3兲 The corrosion product composition determined using XRD is shown in the Table There were some minor-to-trace elements that could not be positively identified in the diffraction pattern The XRD analysis indicated all three types of corrosion products—i.e., iron oxides, carbonates, and sulphides—in almost equal proportions Discussion The scientific understanding of the electrochemical nature of general and localized corrosion under laboratory conditions has improved significantly, but the FIG 9—Internal potential of Pipe C 共3 in.兲 310 JAI • STP 1506 ON CORROSION MONITORING TABLE 6—Composition determined by XRD of the main components of the corrosion products from the 3-in horizontal sour pipe 共Pipe C兲 Mineral phase Goethite Hematite Magnetite Mackinawite Greigite Siderite Quartz Formula FeO共OH兲 Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FeS Fe3S4 FeCO3 SiO2 Composition, % 17.3 6.6 22.2 13 15.7 11.4 13.8 knowledge is not readily transferred to actual field situations There would appear to be a trade-off between scientific accuracy and practicality when knowledge is transferred from the laboratory to the field Many techniques developed in the laboratory are not used in the field either because they are cumbersome to use or because their importance is not understood by field personnel Therefore, only the parameters that are considered essential in designing and operating the system and that are readily available from the operating conditions are used As an illustration, integrity management of oil and gas production pipelines may be considered Internal corrosion—particularly pitting corrosion—of carbon and low-alloy steels caused by carbon dioxide 共CO2兲 and hydrogen sulphide 共H2S兲 is a major concern for the integrity of pipelines Internal corrosion, in the form of pitting corrosion, has caused more than 5000 failures in production pipelines and two major failures recently of larger diameter transmission pipelines A number of models 关3–6兴 and monitoring techniques 关7兴 have been developed and used to combat internal corrosion The models that have been developed to predict the occurrence of pitting corrosion can be classified broadly into corrosion science, electrochemical, and corrosion engineering models 关8兴 In electrochemical models the penetration of a pipe wall by a pit is divided in to three stages: formation of a passive layer on the steel surface; initiation of pits at localized regions on the steel surface where film breakdown occurs; and pit propagation and eventual penetration of the pipe wall Electrochemical reactions are involved in all three stages, and they can be modelled using electrochemical principles 关9兴 The corrosion potentials are required as inputs in many models All models were developed based on experiments conducted in the laboratory Whereas corrosion potential measurement is routinely and easily performed in the laboratory, measurement of the corrosion potential in the field is more difficult Therefore, in order to adapt the electrochemical models to the pipeline operating environments, it is necessary to determine the corrosion potential of the internal surface of the operating pipelines Measuring corrosion potential under operating pipeline conditions will facilitate the application of advanced electrochemical science tools in the field DEMOZ ET AL., doi:10.1520/JAI101244 311 An effective way to achieve this goal is to develop a field-usable standard reference electrode The most important consideration in the construction of such a reference electrode is isolating the reference electrode elements from the fouling media while maintaining electrical contact Using a KCl-impregnated natural fiber solid junction 共a wooden disk about 7-mm thickness兲, the reference electrode with stable potentials at high pressure 共 ⬇ 3000 kPa兲 and temperature 共60° C兲 can be produced The reference electrode maintained with saturated KCl concentration should show no sign of leakage across the junction upon examination of the inside of the cell at the end of the test period The very limited area for ingression of fouling fluids, the selectivity of the junction against the fouling components 共e.g., oil兲, and sufficient conductivity achieved by the material are basic qualities of such a reference electrode By using such a reference electrode, and by measuring corrosion potentials under actual industrial operating conditions, it is anticipated that many scientific parameters—including pitting potential, passivation potential, and repassivation potential—may be determined Conclusions • Construction of an Ag/ AgCl, KCl saturated reference electrode that performs successfully at high pressure and temperature in the presence of fouling media is described • This reference electrode is compact and suitable for field applications Its reliability is demonstrated by measuring the corrosion potentials of three operating oil and gas pipelines Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the helpful discussions and financial support from the members of the CANMET/Industry Consortium on Predicting Internal Pitting Corrosion of Multiphase Pipelines 共Baker Petrolite, Devon Canada, Enbridge, EnCana, Exxon Mobil, Nalco, and PetroCanada兲 The Federal Panel on Program of Energy R&D 共PERD兲 also supported this work References 关1兴 关2兴 关3兴 关4兴 关5兴 Ives, D J G and Janz, G J., Reference Electrodes: Theory and Practice, Academic Press, New York, 1961, pp 198–213 Papavinasam, S., Demoz, A., Omotoso, O., Michaelian, K., and Revie, R W., “Further Validation of Internal Pitting Corrosion of Oil and Gas Pipelines,” Corrosion/ 2008, Paper No 8542, New Orleans, Louisana Kermani, M B and Smith, L M., 共Editors兲, “CO2 Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production: Design Considerations,” European Federation of Corrosion Publications, No 23, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, England, 1997 Macdonald, D D and Macdonald, M U., “Theory of Steady-State Passive Films,” J Electrochem Soc., Vol 137, 1990, pp 2395–2402 Sridhar, N., Dunn, D S., Anderko, A N., Lencka, M M., and Schutt, H U., “Effects 312 JAI • STP 1506 ON CORROSION MONITORING 关6兴 关7兴 关8兴 关9兴 of Water and Gas Compositions on the Internal Corrosion of Gas Pipelines– Modeling and Experimental Studies,” Corrosion 共Houston兲, Vol 57, No 3, 2001, pp 221–235 Nordsveen, M., Nesic, S., Nyborg, R., and Stangeland, A., “A Mechanistic Model for Carbon Dioxide Corrosion of Mild Steel in the Presence of Protective Iron Carbonate Films - Part 1: Theory and Verification,” Corrosion 共Houston兲, Vol 59, No 5, 2003, pp 443–456 NACE Report 3T199, “Techniques for Monitoring Corrosion Related Parameters in Field Applications,” 1999 Papavinasam, S., Revie, R W., Friesen, W., Doiron, A., and Panneerselvam, T., “Review of Models to Predict Internal Pitting Corrosion of Oil and Gas Pipelines,” Corrosion Reviews, Vol 24, Nos 3–4, 2006, pp 173–230 Sharland, S M., “A Review of the Theoretical Modelling of Crevice and Pitting Corrosion,” Corros Sci., Vol 27, No 3, 1987, pp 289–323 STP1506-EB/Nov 2009 313 Author Index A Andrade, C., 259-70 Attard, Michael, 160-86, 226-39, 240-55 B Balasubramaniam, R., 271-80 Bocher, F., 69-104 Bouteiller, V., 259-70 Budiansky, N D., 69-104 M Marie-Victoire, E., 259-70 Martinez, I., 259-70 Michaelian, Kirk, 300-12 Montalvo, Eva, 143-59 N Noël, J J., 281-99 P C Chiang, K T., 105-26 Cong, H., 69-104 D Dean, Sheldon W., 41-65 Demoz, Alebachew, 300-12 Dinardo, Orlando, 226-39 E Evans, Kenneth J., 189-210 Papavinasam, Sankara, 160-86, 226-39, 240-55, 300-12 Provder, Theodore, 143-59 R Rebak, Raul B., 189-210 Rebolledo, N., 259-70 Revie, R Winston, 160-86, 226-39, 240-55, 300-12 Ricker, Richard E., 127-40 Rodgers, Robert, 211-25 F Frankel, Gerald S., 3-40 G Gould, W Douglas, 226-39 S Sahoo, Gadadhar, 271-80 Scully, J R., 69-104 Shen, Weidian, 143-59 Shoesmith, D W., 281-99 Sooknah, Reeta, 226-39 H Handsy, Carl, 143-59 He, X., 281-99 Hurley, M F., 69-104 W Wang, Tie, 143-59 Wu, Xiaomei, 143-59 Y L Loveday, David, 211-25 Copyright © 2009 by ASTM International Yang, Lietai, 105-26 www.astm.org STP1506-EB/Nov 2009 315 Subject Index A Ag/AgCl reference electrode, 300-12 array sensor, 105-26 electrochemical techniques, 259-70 electrochemical tests, 3-40 enzyme electrode, 226-39 EPR test, 41-65 C F carbon steel, 69-104, 271-80 cathodic disbondment, 160-86, 240-55 concrete, 259-70 copper, 69-104 corrosion, 3-40, 127-40, 143-59, 259-70 corrosion in concrete, 69-104 corrosion monitoring, 105-26 corrosion potential, 300-12 corrosion rate measurement, 211-25 corrosion sensor, 105-26 coupled multi-electrode array, 69104 coupled multielectrode, 105-26 crevice corrosion, 41-65, 69-104, 127-40, 189-210, 281-99 failure prevention, 127-40 FBE, 160-86, 240-55 fusion bonded epoxy, 160-86, 240-55 G galvanostaircase polarization, 41-65 I impedance polarization resistance, 211-25 inspection, 127-40 intergranular corrosion, 41-65, 69-104 internal pipe potential, 300-12 L D LEIS, 143-59 localized corrosion sensor, 105-26 defect tolerance, 127-40 E M EIS, 143-59 electrochemical biosensor, 226-39 electrochemical frequency modulation, 211-25 electrochemical impedance, 41-65 electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, 160-86 electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance 共EQCM兲, 240-55 Copyright © 2009 by ASTM International multi-electrode sensor, 105-26 multielectrode array, 105-26 multielectrode sensor, 105-26 multiple electrode sensor, 105-26 N N06022, 189-210 www.astm.org 316 O oil and gas, 160-86, 240-55 P pH, 271-80 phosphoric irons, 271-80 pipeline coating, 160-86, 240-55 pipelines, 160-86, 240-55 pitting, 41-65 pitting corrosion, 69-104 polarization, 41-65, 271-80 polarization resistance, 41-65 pseudo-reference electrode, 300-12 R repassivation potential, 189-210 round robin, 189-210 S service life prediction, 127-40 solution resistance, 41-65 stainless steel, 69-104 Sulfide monitoring, 226-39 sulfide oxidase, 226-39 T Tafel slope, 41-65, 271-80 titanium alloy, 281-99 www.astm.org ISBN: 978-0-8031-5522-0 Stock #: STP1506