jiun-haw lee, david n. liu, shin-tson wu introdution to flat panel displays (bookos.org)

Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Wiley-SID Series in Display Technology Series Editor: Anthony C Lowe Consultant Editor: Michael A Kriss Display Systems: Design and Applications Lindsay W MacDonald and Anthony C Lowe (Eds) Electronic Display Measurement: Concepts, Techniques, and Instrumentation Peter A Keller Projection Displays Edward H Stupp and Matthew S Brennesholtz Liquid Crystal Displays: Addressing Schemes and Electro-Optical Effects Ernst Lueder Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays Shin-Tson Wu and Deng-Ke Yang Colour Engineering: Achieving Device Independent Colour Phil Green and Lindsay MacDonald (Eds) Display Interfaces: Fundamentals and Standards Robert L Myers Digital Image Display: Algorithms and Implementation Gheorghe Berbecel Flexible Flat Panel Displays Gregory Crawford (Ed.) Polarization Engineering for LCD Projection Michael G Robinson, Jianmin Chen, and Gary D Sharp Fundamentals of Liquid Crystal Devices Deng-Ke Yang and Shin-Tson Wu Introduction to Microdisplays David Armitage, Ian Underwood, and Shin-Tson Wu Mobile Displays: Technology and Applications Achintya K Bhowmik, Zili Li, and Philip Bos (Eds) Photoalignment of Liquid Crystalline Materials: Physics and Applications Vladimir G Chigrinov, Vladimir M Kozenkov and Hoi-Sing Kwok Projection Displays, Second Edition Matthew S Brennesholtz and Edward H Stupp Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Jiun-Haw Lee, David N Liu and Shin-Tson Wu Introduction to Flat Panel Displays By Jiun-Haw Lee National Taiwan University, Taiwan David N Liu Industrial Technology Research Institute, Taiwan Shin-Tson Wu University of Central Florida, USA This edition first published 2008 © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lee, Jiun-Haw Introduction to flat panel displays / by Jiun-Haw Lee, David N Liu, and Shin-Tson Wu p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-470-51693-5 (cloth) Flat panel displays I Liu, David N II Wu, Shin-Tson III Title TK7882.I6L436 2008 621.3815 422—dc22 2008032204 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-470-51693-5 Set in 9/11pt Times by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire Contents Series Editor’s Foreword About the authors Preface Acknowledgements xi xiii xv xvii Introduction 1.1 Flat panel displays 1.2 Emissive and nonemissive displays 1.3 Display specifications 1.3.1 Physical parameters 1.3.2 Brightness and color 1.3.3 Contrast ratio 1.3.4 Spatial and temporal characteristics 1.3.5 Efficiency and power consumption 1.3.6 Flexible displays 1.4 Applications of flat panel displays 1.4.1 Liquid crystal displays 1.4.2 Light-emitting diodes 1.4.3 Plasma display panels 1.4.4 Organic light-emitting devices 1.4.5 Field emission displays References 1 3 5 6 7 8 9 Color science and engineering 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The eye 2.3 Colorimetry 2.3.1 Trichromatic space 2.3.2 CIE 1931 colorimetric observations 2.3.3 CIE 1976 uniform color system 2.3.4 Color saturation and color gamut 2.3.5 Light sources 11 11 12 15 15 16 19 21 22 vi Contents 2.3.5.1 Sunlight and blackbody radiators 2.3.5.2 Backlights of transmissive displays 2.3.5.3 Color rendering index 2.3.6 Photometry 2.4 Production and reproduction of colors Homework problems References 22 23 24 25 27 28 28 Thin-film transistors 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic concepts of crystallized semiconductor materials 3.2.1 Band structure of crystallized semiconductors 3.2.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors 3.3 Disordered semiconductors 3.3.1 Amorphous silicon 3.3.2 Polycrystalline silicon 3.4 Thin-film transistor characteristics 3.5 Passive matrix and active matrix driving schemes 3.6 Non-silicon-based thin-film transistors Homework problems References 31 31 31 32 36 38 39 41 43 47 53 55 56 Liquid crystal displays 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Transmissive thin-film transistor liquid crystal displays 4.3 Liquid crystal materials 4.3.1 Phase transition temperatures 4.3.2 Eutectic mixtures 4.3.3 Dielectric constants 4.3.4 Elastic constants 4.3.5 Rotational viscosity 4.3.6 Optical properties 4.3.7 Refractive indices 4.3.7.1 Wavelength effect 4.3.7.2 Temperature effect 4.4 Liquid crystal alignment 4.5 Homogeneous cell 4.5.1 Phase retardation effect 4.5.2 Voltage-dependent transmittance 4.6 Twisted nematic 4.6.1 Optical transmittance 4.6.2 Viewing angle 4.6.3 Film-compensated TN cells 4.7 In-plane switching 4.7.1 Device structure 4.7.2 Voltage-dependent transmittance 4.7.3 Viewing angle 4.7.4 Phase compensation films 4.8 Fringe field switching 57 57 58 60 60 61 62 65 65 66 67 67 68 70 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 78 78 79 79 80 81 Contents vii 4.9 Vertical alignment 4.9.1 Voltage-dependent transmittance 4.9.2 Response time 4.9.3 Overdrive and undershoot voltage method 4.9.4 Multidomain vertical alignment 4.10 Optically compensated bend cell 4.10.1 Voltage-dependent transmittance 4.10.2 Compensation films for OCB 4.10.3 No-bias bend cell 4.11 Transflective liquid crystal displays 4.11.1 Introduction 4.11.2 Dual cell gap transflective LCDs 4.11.3 Single cell gap transflective LCDs 4.12 Future directions Homework problems References 83 83 83 85 86 88 88 89 91 91 91 93 95 101 101 103 Plasma display panels 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Physics of gas discharge 5.2.1 I–V characteristics 5.2.2 Penning reaction and Paschen curve 5.2.3 Priming mechanism 5.3 Plasma display panels 5.3.1 DC PDP 5.3.2 AC PDP 5.3.3 Panel processes 5.4 Front plate techniques 5.4.1 Substrate 5.4.2 Sustain electrode 5.4.3 Dielectric 5.4.4 Protection layer 5.5 Rear plate techniques 5.5.1 Substrate 5.5.2 Address electrode 5.5.3 Dielectric 5.5.4 Barrier rib 5.5.5 Phosphor 5.6 Assembly and aging techniques 5.6.1 Sealing layer formation and panel alignment 5.6.2 Sealing, gas purging and display gas filling 5.6.3 Aging 5.7 System techniques 5.7.1 Cell operation mechanism 5.7.2 Driving 5.7.3 Energy saving 5.7.4 PDP issues Homework problems References 109 109 109 110 111 112 112 112 113 115 117 118 118 119 119 120 121 121 121 122 124 126 126 127 128 128 129 130 130 132 132 132 viii Contents Light-emitting diodes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Material systems 6.2.1 AlGaAs and AlGaInP material systems for red and yellow LEDs 6.2.2 GaN-based systems for green, blue and UV LEDs 6.2.3 White LEDs 6.3 Diode characteristics 6.3.1 The p-layer and n-layer 6.3.2 Depletion region 6.3.3 J–V characteristics 6.3.4 Heterojunction structures 6.3.5 Quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot structures 6.4 Light-emitting characteristics 6.4.1 Recombination model 6.4.2 L–J characteristics 6.4.3 Spectral characteristics 6.5 Device fabrication 6.5.1 Epitaxy 6.5.2 Process flow and device structure design 6.5.3 Extraction efficiency improvement 6.5.4 Package 6.6 Applications 6.6.1 Traffic signals, electronic signage and huge displays 6.6.2 LCD backlight 6.6.3 General lighting Homework problems References 137 137 140 142 143 145 147 148 149 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 161 161 164 165 167 168 169 169 172 173 174 Organic light-emitting devices 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Energy states in organic materials 7.3 Photophysical processes 7.3.1 Franck–Condon principle 7.3.2 Fluorescence and phosphorescence 7.3.3 Jablonski diagram 7.3.4 Intermolecular processes 7.3.4.1 Energy transfer process 7.3.4.2 Excimer and exciplex formation 7.3.4.3 Quenching process 7.3.5 Quantum yield calculation 7.4 Carrier injection, transport and recombination 7.4.1 Richardson–Schottky thermionic emission 7.4.2 SCLC, TCLC and PF mobility 7.4.3 Charge recombination 7.4.4 Electromagnetic wave radiation 7.5 Structure, fabrication and characterization 7.5.1 Device structure 7.5.1.1 Two-layer OLED 7.5.1.2 Dopant in the matrix as the EML 177 177 178 179 180 182 183 184 184 185 187 187 189 190 192 193 193 195 196 197 198 Contents ix 7.5.1.3 HIL, EIL and p–i–n structure 7.5.1.4 Top-emission and transparent OLEDs 7.5.2 Polymer OLEDs 7.5.3 Device fabrication 7.5.3.1 Thin-film formation 7.5.3.2 Encapsulation and passivation 7.5.3.3 Device structures for AM driving 7.5.4 Electrical and optical characteristics 7.5.5 Degradation mechanisms 7.6 Improvement of internal quantum efficiency 7.6.1 Phosphorescent OLEDs 7.6.2 Tandem structure 7.6.3 White OLEDs 7.7 Improvement of extraction efficiency Homework problems References 200 203 204 205 206 209 210 211 213 218 218 220 222 224 225 226 Field emission displays 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Physics of field emission 8.2.1 Work function and field enhancement 8.2.2 Vacuum mechanism 8.3 FED structure and display mechanism 8.4 Emitter 8.4.1 Spindt emitter 8.4.2 CNT emitter 8.4.3 Surface conduction emitter 8.5 Panel process 8.6 Field emission array plate techniques 8.7 Phosphor plate techniques 8.8 Assembly and aging techniques 8.8.1 Spacer 8.8.2 Sealing layer formation and panel alignment 8.8.3 Sealing 8.8.4 Evacuation and sealing off 8.8.5 Aging 8.9 System techniques Homework problems References 233 233 233 233 236 237 238 239 240 243 244 247 248 249 251 251 252 252 253 253 254 254 Index 259 248 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Input raw materials Melting furnace Floating bath Molten glass Molten metal Annealing Glass Figure 8.19 Typical floating process for forming glass Screen mask Screen printing Drying Firing Figure 8.20 Typical cathode formation using screen printing is screen-printed through a patterned screen mask The pattern is formed on the substrate and then dried and fired A firm and solid pattern of electrode is therefore formed The alternative approach for forming a cathode is to deposit photosensitive silver paste on the substrate and then to form a pattern by photolithography The line width resolution achieved using the photolithographic approach is 20 m, which is better than the 50 m of the screen-printing approach Screen printing is a commonly used approach for forming a cathode since the material cost is lower and the process steps are simpler.66 The dielectric is the layer between the gate electrode and the cathode The layer must be a good insulator to reduce leakage current The dielectric layer is typically formed by screen printing with a thickness of 20 m or using a CVD process with a thickness of m The thickness of this film is dominated by the need to minimize leakage current The gate electrode is used to control or to modulate the emission from the cathode, which is typically silver paste with a thickness of 10 m The cathode is typically formed by screen printing The alternative approach for forming the gate electrode is to deposit a photosensitive silver paste on the dielectric layer and then to form a pattern photolithographically 8.7 Phosphor plate techniques The phosphor plate comprises substrate, anode and phosphor layers Its major function is to generate brightness The substrate in the phosphor plate is similar to the substrate used in the FEA plate The anode in the phosphor plate is an electrical base for phosphor The anode voltage can reach hundreds or tens of thousands of volts The phosphors used in FEDs are electron-excited.67 The luminescence mechanism is cathodoluminescence.68 The distance between the gate and the anode is kept short to keep electron emission as a Field emission displays Table 8.3 249 Common phosphors used in low-voltage applications Decay time ( s) Item Blue-green Blue ZnO:Zn ZnS:Zn ZnS:Ag,Al ZnS:Cu,Al Zn0.65 Cd0.35 S:Ag,Cl (ZnCd)S:Ag Y2 O2 S:Eu Green Red Table 8.4 Luminance efficiency (lm W−1 ) Excitation energy (V) — — 250 — 150–300 — 10 −1 5.0–10.0 0.5–0.8 0.3–0.6 1.0–1.5 4.5 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0 200–400 200–400 200–400 200–400 200–400 200–400 200–400 — — Phosphors commonly used in high-voltage applications Decay time ( s) Item Blue Green Red Relative efficiency (%) ZnS:Ag ZnS:Cu,Al Y2 O2 S:Eu Relative efficiency (%) Luminance efficiency (lm W−1 ) Excitation energy (kV) 30–50 30–50 200 21 17–23 13 — 40–65 — 10–30 10–30 10–30 proximity focusing and not to spread wide The applied voltage must be low since the distance is short Table 8.3 presents the phosphors commonly used in low-voltage applications.69, 70 Most of the materials have low luminance efficiency in the range of the applied voltage ZnO phosphor is a favorable exception with relatively high luminance efficiency.71 However, the green saturation of ZnO is not high, with the green color being mixed with light blue color Accordingly, ZnO is commonly adopted in monochrome FEDs but it is not commonly used in color FEDs Additionally, the luminance efficiency varies with the applied voltage Restated, the luminance efficiency typically increases with increasing applied voltage Although a short distance between gate and anode can ensure a sufficiently narrow distribution of emission spot sizes, only low-voltage phosphors, which typically have low luminance efficiency, can be used.72 To increase luminance efficiency, high-voltage phosphor is used, as shown in Table 8.4.73 These phosphors have relative high efficiency around the applied voltage However, the distance between the gate and the anode must be sufficiently large that the device will not break down Notably, the distribution of phosphor particle sizes is also important.74 Figure 8.21 shows the normal distribution of the sizes of phosphor particles Since a uniform distribution of phosphor particle sizes typically provides a higher pixel resolution, large and small phosphor particles should be removed before or during the phosphor process Outgas from the surface layers of the FED device may contaminate and degrade the phosphor As the phosphor is degraded, the brightness is reduced The phosphor layer is typically formed by screen printing with a thickness of 30 m for each color Figure 8.22 shows the typical screen-printing process of the phosphor layer In this process, phosphor paste is deposited followed by drying and firing Drying removes the solvent material and firing removes the binder material 8.8 Assembly and aging techniques The assembly process binds an FEA plate and a phosphor plate into a display panel with vacuum-tight sealing and evacuation.75 After assembly, aging is required to expose defects and stabilize the quality of the display Figure 8.23 presents a typical assembly and aging process At the beginning of this process, a spacer and sealing layer are formed Then, panel alignment, sealing, evacuation and aging are performed 250 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Amount Small size Normal size Large size Particle size Figure 8.21 Normal distribution of sizes of phosphor particles Red phosphor Screen printing red phosphor and drying Green phosphor Screen printing green phosphor and drying Blue phosphor Screen printing blue phosphor and drying; Firing Figure 8.22 Typical screen-printing process for forming a phosphor layer Sealing layer Spacer Spacer and sealing layer formation Panel alignment Light Sealing, evacuation and aging e– e– Figure 8.23 Typical assembly and aging process e– Field emission displays 251 8.8.1 Spacer The spacer maintains a uniform space between the FEA plate and the phosphor plate.76 Therefore, the height of the spacer determines the distance between the gate and anode In a high-vacuum device, such as a FED, the spacer supports the substrates and prevents them from deforming or cracking Accordingly, the spacer not only should be a high-vacuum material but also must be tough with high compressive strength Its width is preferably less than tens of micrometers, since the area of the spacer cannot display For an insufficiently thin width of spacer, the resolution of the display is limited The spacer is typically from 100 to 1000 m in height.77 The spacer height is determined by the applied voltage In general, a high voltage is required to yield high luminance efficiency At a low voltage of a few hundred volts, a short spacer, about 100 m long, is sufficient to withstand the applied voltage For a high anode voltage of more than a few thousand volts, long spacers, of over 1000 m, are required to prevent breakdown Notably, electron emission spreads widely when the spacer is long Hence, the emission spot in the phosphor plate becomes large.78 In all cases, the spacer must have a high aspect ratio structure The material of the spacer is typically dielectric Accordingly, the spacer is easily charged when electrons travel towards the anode The charging mechanism in the spacer can undesirably discharge during display This phenomenon causes undesirable arcing inside the display cell Slight arcing disturbs the display quality Seriously arcing damages the device To prevent these phenomena, a spacer material must be a slightly conductive dielectric rather than a normal dielectric Screen printing, placement and dispensing approaches can be adopted to form a spacer Since the screen-printing approach must be repeated many times, the spacer width is not easily controlled and the process is time-consuming Therefore, the placement approach, shown in Figure 8.24, is an alternative and effective approach for forming the spacer In this process, sealing pastes are deposited at the desired locations of the FEA plate After this step has been completed, spacers are placed on top of these sealing pastes and then the sealing paste is cured The dispensing approach provides a higher aspect ratio, which is the ratio of the rib height to the width.79 8.8.2 Sealing layer formation and panel alignment Typical sealing layer materials are glass frits and glass powder, which is a vacuum material and provides a vacuum-tight sealing.80, 81 The material must have a low melting point, and thus be compatible with glass substrate The use of epoxy material, commonly used in LCDs, as a sealing layer is not appropriate FEA plate formation Adhesive Adhesive layer formation Spacer Spacer placement and curing Figure 8.24 Placement approach for spacer formation 252 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays in the FED process since outgas is usually given out of the epoxy material after the sealing process This outgas can contaminate the display cell and degrade the performance of the display The first step of the sealing process is to dispense a sealing layer onto the surrounding area of a FEA plate or phosphor plate The next step is to align the FEA plate and the phosphor plate The accuracy of this alignment is critical and can affect the display quality The main challenge of this process is the alignment shift during the high-temperature sealing process The alignment of the FEA plate and phosphor plate is typically maintained by clippers When the FEA plate and the phosphor plate are aligned and clipped, an additional sealing paste must also be deposited in the area that surrounds the small opening of the FEA plate Then, an exhausting tube is placed on the deposited area of the small opening of the FEA plate An alternative approach, called tubeless sealing, does not use an exhausting tube The advantages of this tubeless sealing approach are the faster evacuation and thinner panel.82 The evacuation is faster because the panel vacuum is obtained from a ready vacuum of the whole chamber and this chamber vacuum can pump down before the panel process The panel can be thinner when a tip-off tail of the exhaust tube is absent However, the gas given off by the sealing paste using tubeless sealing can be sealed inside of the panel and can then contaminate the panel Tubeless sealing demands extra work to clean the contamination inside of the panel.83 8.8.3 Sealing The sealing process melts the material of the sealing layer to bind the FEA plate to the phosphor plate permanently.84 The gas given off during the sealing process contaminates the emitter Because of the thermal characteristics of the glass frits and glass powder, the sealing is typically performed at high temperature The typical sealing process temperature is 450 ◦ C Clipper selection is important since the clipper may lose binding strength during sealing For an improper selection of clipper, the panel alignment may be shifted during sealing Moreover, the glass substrate may crack during sealing at high temperature 8.8.4 Evacuation and sealing off The evacuation begins in the viscous flow region, in which the mean free path is short and the vacuum pumping speed is rather high When a high-vacuum environment is achieved, the evacuation is in the molecular flow regime, in which the mean free path is large and the vacuum pumping speed is rather slow Since the display cell depends on a high-vacuum environment, a vacuum process to evacuate all of the gas from each display cell is critical In addition to the physical vacuum pump, chemical getting is adopted in FED processing to assist the vacuum pump and adsorb these impurities The getter is the main material in a chemical pump.85 This getter is a material that can absorb gas to yield a vacuum.86 Radiofrequency heating is commonly adopted to activate and heat the getter but not the glass substrate Improper heating of the getter can crack the substrate The additional function of the getter is to absorb the impurities which sometimes are poison gases Since the poison gases may be emitted into the display cell in the sealed panel, this poison gas must be removed from the sealed panel The getter can act as a poison gas absorber and maintain a clean gas environment in the display cell Getters are of two types: evaporation getters (EGs) and nonevaporation getters (NEGs) The EG type has a larger effective area for reaction with gas but the evaporated material may evaporate onto the undesired area and contaminate the device The tipping-off of the exhausting tube must be performed carefully so that gas given off during the tip-off process can evacuate out and not be left inside of the panel Therefore, a preliminary tip-off process is typically needed to evacuate the gas given off so that only very little given-off gas is left inside the panel In order to perform the tip-off process, electric heating or gas heating on the exhausting Field emission displays 253 Vacuum (torr) 10–3 10–4 Panel vacuum 10–5 10–6 Chamber vacuum 10–7 Figure 8.25 50 100 150 200 Time (min.) Pump chamber vacuum and panel vacuum for a 3-inch panel with 200 m high spacers tube is commonly used Electric heating uses electricity to heat a ceramic and the heated ceramic is used to tip off the exhausting tube, while gas heating uses gas directly to tip off the exhausting tube Most importantly, electrical heating needs more apparatus than gas heating, although electrical heating is relatively controllable Notably, the pressure of the vacuum in the pump chamber differs by one to two orders of magnitude from that in the panel Figure 8.25 shows plots of the chamber vacuum and the panel vacuum for a 3-inch panel with 200 m high spacers 8.8.5 Aging The purpose of aging is to expose defects Contamination of the emitter surface and defects in the dielectric and in the electrode are revealed during the aging process Aging can also stabilize the emission since it can polish or smooth the emitter surface and remove surface contamination from the emitter 8.9 System techniques FED circuits perform power supply, signal processing and scan/data driving functions Figure 8.26 shows a typical block diagram In this diagram, the FED panel is driven by a driver circuit while the signal processing circuit provides a video signal to the panel Since a few tens of volts must be applied to operate a FED panel, a high-voltage driver IC is required Additionally, amplitude and pulse width modulation are commonly adopted in FEDs because field emission devices have linear current–voltage (I–V ) and high response characteristics.87 Among scan addressing, direct addressing, matrix addressing and other addressing approaches, matrix addressing can address more data in a short address time Additionally, each pixel is electrically connected to each row and each column in matrix addressing For VGA (640 × 480) data format, the number of scan lines is 480 and the number of data lines is 640 Figure 8.27 shows typical matrix addressing As shown in Figure 8.27, data to 640 are sent to the panel when row is scanned After row is scanned, row is scanned Data to 640 are sent to panel when row is scanned Such scanning proceeds sequentially from row to row 480 to display 254 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Power supply Signal process Driver FED panel Figure 8.26 Typical FED system Scan (row 1) Scan (row 2) Scan (row 3) Scan (row 480) Data (Column 1) Data (Column 640) Figure 8.27 Typical matrix addressing Homework problems 8.1 Draw a trajectory of electrons that are emitted from emitter to anode for distances of 100 m and 5000 m Does the spot size of the electrons at a distance of 100 m differ from that at 5000 m? 8.2 Classify the emission when the electric field is × 107 V cm−1 and the temperature is 500 K Does field emission dominate? 8.3 Describe the process constraints of the Spindt emitter, CNT emitter and SCE References Utsumi, T., (1991) Keynote address vacuum microelectronics: what’s new and exciting IEEE Trans Electron Dev., ED-38, 2276 Itoh, S., Tanaka, M., Tonegwa, T et al 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Carretti, C and Amiotti, M (1997) Gettering technology in plasma display panels International Display Workshops ’97, p 543 87 Huang, C.N and Liang, C.C (2007) A study on PWM driving schemes for a 20 inch VGA carbon nanotube field emission display SID Dig., 1309 Index A C absorption, 11, 23, 41, 42, 54, 66, 67, 79, 80, 81, 139, 142, 147, 165, 166, 168, 179, 180, 181, 183 acceptor, 37, 38, 138, 147, 148, 149, 150, 184, 185, 218 achromatic, 21, 75 active matrix (AM), 31, 47, 196 alkali, 202, 203, 220 alkaline, 202, 220 aluminum chelate, 178, 197 ambipolar, 196 anion, 189, 202 anthracene, 177 antibonding, 178 antinode, 195, 196 aperture ratio, 57, 58, 59, 87, 92, 95, 122 aqueous humor, 12 arc discharge, 110–111 aromatic diamine, 178, 197 arylamine, 203 atomic orbital, 177, 178, 179 candela (cd), 25, 26, 27, 199, 200 charge generation layer (CGL), 220, 221 chromaticity diagram, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23 Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE), 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23 ciliary muscle, 12, 13 cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL), 23, 24, 59, 139 color change material (CCM), 207 color difference, 11, 19, 21, 24, 25 color gamut, 21, 22, 59, 91, 101, 139, 145, 158, 160, 168, 170, 172 color matching experiments, 16, 17 color mixing, 16, 20 color space, 11, 16, 20, 21, 27 color temperature, 22, 23 colorimetry, 12, 15 concentration quenching, 187, 199 conduction band, 33, 34, 36, 37, 40, 137, 141, 144, 148, 150, 156, 177 cone cell, 11, 13, 14, 15, 28 continuity equation, 157, 189, 192 cornea, 12 correlated color temperature, 23 critical angle, 139, 161, 165, 193, 194 B Beer-Lambert law, 187 blackbody radiator, 22, 23 blackbody locus, 23 blind spot, 12, 13, 14 bonding, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 178, 179, 209 Born-Oppenheimer approximation, 179 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays c 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd D Dexter energy transfer, 184, 185, 218 donor, 37, 38, 147, 148, 149, 150, 184, 185, 218 drift-diffusion current equation, 189 J.-H Lee, D.N Liu and S.-T Wu 260 Index E G effective mass, 35, 36, 40, 148, 149, 191 eigenenergy, 179 electrode quench, 187, 196 electroluminescence (EL), 137, 141, 144, 146, 177, 178, 189, 195, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204, 205, 208, 212, 213, 214, 218, 221, 224 electronic state, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188 electron-injection layer (EIL), 178, 189, 194, 200 electron-transporting layer (ETL), 178, 189, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 221, 224 emitting layer (EML), 178, 189, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, 211, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224 encapsulation, 145, 161, 196, 206, 213, 214 energy state, 32, 33, 34, 37, 44, 158, 177, 178, 179 epitaxy, 139, 143, 149, 154, 155, 156, 161, 163 excimer, 180, 184, 185, 186, 187, 199 exciplex, 180, 184, 185, 186, 187 external electrode fluorescent lamp (EEFL), 23, 24 external quantum efficiency (EQE), 142, 194, 196, 203, 220, 224, 225 extraction efficiency, 139, 155, 158, 161, 165, 166, 167, 168, 194, 224, 225 extrinsic degradation, 196 eyeballs, 13 eye lens, 12, 13 Gaussian Lens formula, 12 gray scale, 75, 76, 78, 86, 100, 131–131, 239 glow discharge, 110–111 F Fabry-Perot cavity, 194 Fermi level, 34, 38, 44, 147, 149, 150, 202, 233–235 field emission display (FED), 23, 24, 233, 237–238, 240, 244–245, 247, 249, 252, 254 flat fluorescent lamp (FFL), 23, 24, fluorescence, 179, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188, 193, 200, 214, 215 Förster energy transfer, 184, 185, 218 Fowler-Nordheim(FN) tunneling, 189, 235–236 Franck-Condon principle, 179, 180, 183, 185 Frenkel exciton, 193 H Hamiltonian, 183 heavy atom effect, 183 heterojunction, 148, 153 hole-blocking layer (HBL), 178, 219 hole-injection layer (HIL), 178, 189, 199, 200, 203, 205 hole-transporting layer (HTL), 178, 189, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 205, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 221 highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 196, 197, 200, 201, 202, 203, 211, 219, 220, 222 hot cathode fluorescent lamp (HCFL), 23, 24 I ideality factor, 190 illuminance, 25, 26 impurity quenching, 187 indium tin oxide (ITO), 58, 73, 74, 81, 95, 96, 97, 98, 114, 118–119, 139, 165, 178, 189, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 220, 221, 225 ink-jet printing, 196, 206, 209, 243 intermolecular process, 184, 187 internal conversion, 183, 188 internal quantum efficiency (IQE), 182, 195, 218, 222, 224 intersystem crossing (ISC), 183, 193, 219 intrinsic degradation, 196, 213, 214 J Jablonski diagram, 180, 183, 184, 188 L Langevin theory, 138, 155, 156, 190, 193, 211 laser-assisted pattern technique, 208 laser-induced pattern-wise sublimation (LIPS), 208 laser induced thermal imaging (LITI), 208 Index light-emitting diode (LED), 23, 24, 27, 31, 32, 57, 59, 101, 137 light-to-heat conversion (LTHC), 208 lithography, 115–116, 119, 121, 205, 207, 243–244, 247–248 lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), 177, 179, 180, 181, 196, 197, 200, 201, 203, 211, 220, 222 lumen (lm), 17, 25, 26, 27 luminous flux, 25, 26, 27 luminance, 25, 26 luminous intensity, 25, 26, 27 lux, 25, 26 M MacAdam ellipses, 19, 20 metamerism, 12, 28 microcavity, 195, 203, 223 mobility, 31, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 53, 54, 55, 148, 149, 152, 177, 187, 189, 192, 193, 195, 197, 198, 202, 210, 211 molecular orbital, 177, 178, 179, 180 monochromatic light locus, 17 Mott-Gurney equation, 192 O optic nerve, 12, 13 organic light-emitting device (OLED), 31, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 177 P passivation, 42, 54, 96, 97, 149, 196, 206, 209, 210, 213 passive matrix (PM), 47, 48, 49, 50, 53 Pauli’s exclusion principle, 32, 34, 178, 182 photometry, 12, 18 photopic, 13, 14, 25 photoreceptor, 13, 16 phosphorescence, 177, 179, 182, 183, 184, 193, 218 Planck constant, 22, 35, 191 Poisson’s equation, 147, 150, 189, 192 polaron, 193 polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), 210 polymetric light-emitting device (PLED), 204, 205, 214, 225 Poole-Frenkel (PF) model, 189 primary color, 11, 15, 16, 21, 27, 28 261 Q quantum yield, 187, 188, 219 quenching, 187 R radiometry, 16, 18 recombination, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 148, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165, 177, 183, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 205, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 218, 222, 224 reflection, 11, 12, 60, 91, 92, 93, 99 refractive index, 57, 67, 68, 69, 75, 139, 143, 155, 161, 168, 193, 194, 195, 212, 225 retina, 12, 13 Richardson-Schottky (RS) thermionic emission, 177, 190 rod cell, 13, 14 S Schottky barrier, 138, 203 scotopic, 13, 14 semiconductor, 31, 32 shadow mask, 206, 207, 208 singlet exciton, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 188, 193 space-charge limited conduction (SCLC), 177, 189, 192, 211 spin-coating, 196, 204, 206, 209 spin-orbital coupling, 183, 218 Stokes shift, 146, 147, 181, 183, 189, 218, 219, 223, 224 T thermal evaporation, 177, 203, 206 thin-film transistor (TFT), 31, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 68, 75, 78, 83, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 101 trap-charge limited conduction (TCLC), 177, 189, 192, 211 trichromatic space, 11, 15 triplet exciton, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 188, 193, 218, 219, 223, 224 triplet-triplet annihilation, 219, 224 tristimulus values, 15, 17, 20 two-transistor and one-capacitor (2T1C), 52, 53 262 U uniform color system, 19, 25 V valence band, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 137, 141, 144, 148, 150, 153, 156, 158, 164, 177 vibrational state, 180, 181, 183 Index viewing angle, 13, 16, 57, 59, 60, 64, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 101, 225 visual axis, 13 vitreous humor, 12 W water vapor permeation rate (WVPR), 209, 210 workfunction, 233–237, 239, 247 ... Projection Displays, Second Edition Matthew S Brennesholtz and Edward H Stupp Introduction to Flat Panel Displays Jiun-Haw Lee, David N Liu and Shin-Tson Wu Introduction to Flat Panel Displays By Jiun-Haw. .. Data Lee, Jiun-Haw Introduction to flat panel displays / by Jiun-Haw Lee, David N Liu, and Shin-Tson Wu p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-470-51693-5 (cloth) Flat panel. .. carrier transport Introduction to Flat Panel Displays c 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd J.-H Lee, D.N Liu and S.-T Wu 32 Introduction to Flat Panel Displays In a conductor, by contrast, carriers (electrons