Bioresource technology incorporates techniques using living organisms, parts of organisms, enzymes, proteins, and few others, which are either naturally occurring or are derived from such living systems. These techniques can be used to create or modify products, improve plant or animal productivity or develop microorganisms for special use. Emerging bioresource technology uses recombinant DNA, cell fusion and embryo manipulation among others. This technology has the potential to transform the living conditions of people through its impact on agriculture, animal husbandry, health, environmental protection, material transformation and other areas. From our increasingly deeper understanding of the intricate biochemical interactions at cellular and molecular levels, new paradigms in healthcare have emerged. We have moved from “preventive” (vaccines) and “curative” (antibiotics) medicines to “predictive and corrective” ones. The credit goes to the unraveling of the mystery of the human genome
Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah Chandigarh University Punjab, India Bisma Malik Chandigarh University Punjab, India Government of Jammu and Kashmir India Khalid Rehman Hakeem Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Bioresource Technology: Concept, Tools and Experiences Rouf Ahmad Bhat King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions The right of Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, Bisma Malik, Rouf Ahmad Bhat and Khalid Rehman Hakeem to be identified as the author(s) of this work has been asserted in accordance with law Registered Office(s) John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Office The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, diagnosis, or treatment by physicians for any particular patient In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of medicines, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each medicine, equipment, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a specialist where appropriate Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Pirzadah, Tanveer Bilal, author | Malik, Bisma, author | Bhat, Rouf Ahmad, 1981- author | Hakeem, Khalid Rehman, author Title: Bioresource technology : concept, tools and experiences / Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, Chandigarh University, Punjab, India, Bisma Malik, Chandigarh University, Punjab, India, Rouf Ahmad Bhat, Sri Pratap College Campus, Cluster University Srinagar, India, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Description: First edition | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2021054587 (print) | LCCN 2021054588 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119789383 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119789420 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119789437 (epub) | ISBN 9781119789444 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Biochemical engineering | Biological products | Agricultural resources Classification: LCC TP248.3 P575 2022 (print) | LCC TP248.3 (ebook) | DDC 660.6/3 dc23/eng/20211230 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021054587 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021054588 Cover image: © Ralf Geithe/Shutterstock Cover design by Wiley Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd, Pondicherry, India 10 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License This edition first published 2022 © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Contents About the Editors xv About the Book xvii Foreword xviii List of Contributors xx Preface xxiv Part I: The Application of Bioresource Technology in the Functional Food Sector 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7 1.3.8 1.3.9 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 Millets: Robust Entrants to Functional Food Sector Sagar Maitra, Sandipan Pine, Pradipta Banerjee, Biswajit Pramanick and Tanmoy Shankar Introduction Nomenclature and Use Description of Important Millets Sorghum Pearl Millet Finger Millet Foxtail Millet Proso Millet Barnyard Millet Little Millet Kodo Millet Brown-Top Millet Millets: The Ancient Crops Current Scenario of Millets Production 10 Nutritional Importance of Millets 11 Millets as Functional Food 13 Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Aging Properties 14 Protection Against Cancer 15 Anti-Diabetic Properties 15 Protection Against Gastro-Intestinal Disorders 15 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License iii Contents 1.6.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 Protection Against Osteoporosis 16 Changes in Food Consumption Pattern and Future Demand 16 Food and Nutritional Security 17 Climate Change and Associated Threat to Agriculture 18 Millets: As Climate Smart Crops 19 Future Agriculture: Smart Technologies in Millet Farming 20 Conclusions 21 References 21 The Art and Science of Growing Microgreens 28 Sreenivasan Ettammal Introduction 28 Historical Background 29 Health Benefits of Microgreens 29 Source of Functional Food Components 29 Component of Space Life Support Systems 30 Component of Nutritional Diet of Troops and Residents of High Altitude Regions 30 Cultivation Practices 30 Species Selection 30 Growing Media and Propagation Felts 30 Growing Process 31 Quality and Shelf Life 33 Market Trends 34 Future Outlook 34 Conclusions 34 References 35 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 3.2.2.4 3.2.2.5 3.2.2.6 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 Novel Nutraceuticals From Marine Resources 38 Zadia Qamar, Amna Syeda, Javed Ahmed and M Irfan Qureshi Introduction 38 Marine Microorganisms as a Source of Nutraceuticals 39 Marine Algae 40 Marine Invertebrates 41 Sponges 41 Crustaceans, Echinoderms and Molluscs 42 Marine Fishes 42 Marine Actinomycetes 43 Marine Fungi 43 Marine Bacteria 44 Classification of Different Nutraceuticals Obtained from Marine Environment 44 Polysaccharides 44 Marine Lipids 45 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License iv 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.4 3.5 3.6 Natural Pigments from Marine Sources 45 Chitosan and Its Derivatives 48 Proteins and Peptides 48 Minerals, Vitamins and Enzymes 49 Marine Probiotics and Phenolic Compounds 49 Important Bioactive Metabolites and Their Biological Properties 50 Current Status of Nutraceuticals in Market 50 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 51 References 51 Bioprospecting of Bioresources: Creating Value From Bioresources 57 Deepika Kathuria and Sumit S Chourasiya 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Bioprospecting in Various Industrial Fields 59 4.2.1 Pharmaceutical Industries 59 4.2.1.1 Drugs From Plants 59 4.2.1.2 Drugs From Bugs 61 4.2.1.2.1 Microbes 61 4.2.1.2.2 Enzymes 61 4.2.1.3 Drugs From Aquatics 69 4.3 Chemical Industries 70 4.3.1 Biocatalysis 70 4.4 Bioprospecting in Agriculture 73 4.4.1 Biofertilizers and Biopesticides 73 4.4.2 Bioremediation 74 4.5 Bioprospecting in Beautification/Cosmetics 74 4.6 Bioprospecting in Detergent Industry 78 4.7 Bioprospecting in Textile Industry 80 4.8 Bioprospecting in Paper Industry 81 4.9 Bioprospecting in Food Industry 82 4.9.1 Bioprospecting in Brewing Industry 83 4.10 Diagnostic 83 4.10.1 Application of Enzymes for the Detection of Pyrogens in Pharmaceutical Products 84 4.10.2 Bioprospecting in Biofuel Production 84 4.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 84 References 85 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Green and Smart Packaging of Food 93 Gülden Gökşen, Derya Boyacı and Nick Tucker Introduction 93 Green Packaging in Food 95 Properties of Green Packaging Materials 95 Mechanical Properties of Green Packaging Materials 97 v Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents Contents 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.8.1 5.8.2 5.8.3 5.8.4 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.11.1 5.11.2 5.11.3 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 Barrier Properties of Green Packaging 98 Green Packaging Materials with Active Properties 99 Biodegradation Mechanisms of Green Packaging 101 Main Green Food Packaging 104 Poly(lactic Acid) (PLA) 104 Polyhydroxyalkaonate (PHA) 105 Starch-based Materials 106 Cellulose-based Materials 106 Life Cycle of Green Packaging Materials 107 Smart Packaging in Food 108 Indicators for Smart Packaging 110 Time-Temperature Indicator (TTI) 110 Freshness Indicators 111 Packaging Integrity Indicators 112 Sensor Applications for Smart Packaging 113 Data Carriers for Smart Packaging 119 Regulatory Aspects 121 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 122 References 123 Nanosensors: Diagnostic Tools in the Food Industry 133 Stephen Rathinaraj Benjamin, Eli José Miranda Ribeiro Junior, Vennilavan Thirumavalavan and Antony De Paula Barbosa Introduction 133 Identification of Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins 134 Pesticides and Carcinogenic Detection 140 Nitrites-Carcinogenic Detection 141 Mycotoxin Detection 141 Food Packaging 142 Food Freshness Detection 143 Chemicals and Food Additives Detection 144 Preservatives 144 Dyes 144 Sweeteners 145 Antioxidants 145 Food Allergens 145 Nano-based Sensors for Smart Packaging 146 Nanobarcodes 147 e-NOSE and e-TONGUE 147 Oxygen Sensors 147 Humidity Sensors 148 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sensor 148 Challenges 149 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 150 References 150 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 6.5.5 6.6 6.7 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License vi 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.3.9 7.3.10 7.3.11 7.3.12 7.3.13 7.3.14 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6.1 7.7 7.7.1 7.7.1.1 7.7.1.2 7.7.1.3 7.7.1.4 7.7.1.5 7.7.1.6 7.7.1.7 7.7.1.8 7.8 7.8.1 7.8.2 7.8.3 7.9 Harnessing Genetic Diversity for Addressing Wheat-based Time Bound Food Security Projections: A Selective Comprehensive Practical Overview 160 Abdul Mujeeb-Kazi, Niaz Ali, Ian Dundas, Philip Larkin, Alexey Morghonov, Richard R-C Wang, Francis Ogbonnaya, Hanif Khan, Nasir Saeed, Shabir Wani, Mohammad Sohail Saddiq, Mohammad Jamil, Abdul Aziz Napar, Fatima Khalid, Mahjabeen Tariq, Rumana Keyani, Zeeshan Ali and Sanjaya Rajaram The Global Wheat Scenario 162 Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding Over Billion by 2050 163 Conventional Wheat Improvement Strategies 165 Breeding Methods 165 Recombination Breeding 166 Pedigree or Line Breeding 167 Bulk Method 168 Single Seed Descent (SSD) Method 168 Backcross Breeding 169 Modified Pedigree Bulk 169 Selected Bulk 170 Multiline Breeding 170 Shuttle Breeding 171 Doubled Haploid 172 Mutation Breeding 173 Hybrid Wheat 175 The XYZ System 176 Innovative Technologies for Accessing Novel Genetic Diversity 177 Major Global Locations of Wheat Genetic Diversity 179 Utilization of Genetic Diversity 179 Wide Crosses: The Historical Build-up 183 Distribution of Genetic Diversity: Gene Pools, Their Potential Impact and Research Integration for Practicality 185 The Gene Pool Structure 186 Primary Gene Pool Species 186 The A Genome (Triticum Boeoticum, T Monococcum, T Urartu; 2n = 2x = 14, AA) 187 The D Genome (Aegilops Tauschii = Goat Grass; 2n = 2x = 14, DD) 187 Secondary Gene Pool Species 188 Selected Secondary Gene Pool Species Utilization Example 188 Tertiary Gene Pool Species 188 The Gene Pool Potential Recap 189 Conclusion: Transfer Prerequisites Across Gene Pools 191 Underexplored Areas 191 Land Races: Definitions, General Characteristics and Practicality Potential 191 Wheat Landraces: An Additive Diversity Source 193 Important Collections of Wheat Landraces 194 Perennial Wheat 198 vii Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents Contents 7.9.1 he Concept of a More Sustainable Perennial Wheat-Like Cereal Is It T Feasible? 198 7.9.1.1 What Benefit/s Would Come? 198 7.9.1.2 Potential Pitfalls 198 7.9.1.3 What Approaches Can Be Conceived? 199 7.9.1.4 What Progress? 200 7.9.1.5 What Lessons? 201 7.9.1.6 Suggested Way Forward? 7.9.2 Genetic Engineering for Wheat Improvement Focused on a Few Major Food Security Aspects 204 7.9.2.1 Tissue Culture and Transformation of Wheat 204 7.9.2.2 Production of Genetically-Modified Wheat 205 7.9.2.3 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing in Wheat 205 7.9.2.4 Potential Traits for Genetic Improvement of Wheat Through Biotechnology 206 7.9.2.5 Yield Potential 206 7.9.2.6 Climate Change 207 7.9.2.7 Drought 207 7.9.2.8 Salinity 207 7.9.2.9 Heat 208 7.10 Historical Non-Conventional Trends for Exploiting Wheat’s Genetic Resources 208 7.10.1 Pre-1900 208 7.10.2 1901–1920 209 7.10.3 1921–1930 210 7.10.4 1931–1950 210 7.10.5 The Post-1950 Era: Preamble 211 7.10.6 Homoeologous Pairing 212 7.10.7 Isolation of Homoeologous Recombinants 213 7.10.8 Intergeneric Hybridization Steps for Wheat/Alien Crossing 214 7.10.8.1 Embryo Extraction and Handling 217 7.10.8.2 Pre-Breeding Protocol 218 7.10.8.3 Development of Genetic Stocks 219 7.10.8.4 Establishing a Living Herbarium 219 7.10.9 Interspecific Hybridization 219 7.10.10 Additive Durum Wheat Improvement 219 7.10.10.1 The Parental Choice 221 7.10.10.2 Shortening the Breeding Cycle by Inducing Homozygosity in Desired Early Breeding Generations 222 7.10.10.3 The Integration of Molecular Development Options for Efficiency and Precision 223 7.11 Alleviating Wheat Productivity Constraints via New Genetic Variation 224 7.11.1 Biotic Constraints 224 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License viii 7.11.2 7.11.3 7.11.4 7.11.5 7.11.6 7.11.7 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 Insect Resistance 225 Root Diseases 226 Abiotic Stresses 226 Grain Yield 227 Bio-Fortification 228 Future Directions and Strategies 228 Accruing Potental Practical Benefits 230 Summary of the Practical Potential Benefits 236 The Role of Genomics Information Including Molecular Markers in Wheat 237 The Way Forward and Wrap-Up 248 Concerns 249 Conclusions 250 Some Perceptions 252 References 253 Part II: Bioresource and Future Energy Security 289 8 Waste-to-Energy: Potential of Biofuels Production from Sawdust as a Pathway to Sustainable Energy Development 291 Oyebanji Joseph Adewumi, Oyedepo Sunday Olayinka, Kilanko Oluwaseun and Dunmade Israel Sunday 8.1 Introduction 291 8.2 Overview of Potential WTE Technologies for Biomass Wastes 293 8.2.1 Thermo-Chemical Conversion Technologies 293 8.2.1.1 Gasification 294 8.2.1.2 Pyrolysis 294 8.2.1.3 Liquefaction 295 8.3 Biochemical Conversion Technologies 295 8.4 Potential Feedstocks for Waste-to-Energy 296 8.4.1 Agricultural Residues 296 8.4.2 Animal Waste 296 8.4.3 Forestry Residues 296 8.4.4 Industrial Wastes 296 8.4.5 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 297 8.4.6 Black Liquor 297 8.5 Waste-to-Energy and Sustainable Energy Development 297 8.6 Challenges and Future Prospects of Waste-to-Energy Technologies 298 8.7 Case Study: Application of Fast Pyrolysis for Conversion of Sawdust to Bio-Oil 299 8.7.1 Samples Collection and Experimental Analysis 299 8.7.2 Instrumentation and Experimental Set-up 299 8.7.3 GCMS Analysis 299 ix Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management Ghulam Mustafa Department of Economics and Business Administration, Division of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan CHAPTER MENU 18.1 Introduction 504 18.2 Bioeconomy 504 18.3 Profitability Analysis of Bioresource-based Business 505 18.3.1 Short Rotation Cultivation (SRC) 506 18.3.2 Ecotourism 507 18.3.3 District Heating 507 18.3.4 Aquatic Biorefinery 508 18.4 Food Waste to Bioresource Businesses and Their Efficacies 509 18.4.1 Biofertilizer and Biogas Production 509 18.4.2 Biomethane 509 18.4.3 Bioethanol Fermentation 510 18.5 Bioresources for Risk Prevention and Poverty Alleviation 512 18.6 Conclusion 513 18.1 Introduction Bioresources are usually associated with production, processing, consumption and use of materials However, Krozer and Lordkipanidze (2019) reported that non-material activities should also be included in bioresources and they were of the opinion that cultural ecosystem services is emerging in terms of economics development and scientific interest Bioresources can be produced endlessly if nature is used with care Bioresources contribute to the regulation of environmental qualities and sustain life on Earth These provide food and energy, and other materials such as quality of life, leisure, relaxation and such-like amenities that foster tranquillity Bio-based resources also add cultural values that include basic resources for artistic, educational and scientific inspiration, and thus support ethical, spiritual and esthetical behavior 18.2 Bioeconomy A bioeconomy can be defined as an economic systems based on renewable biological resources including energy, chemical and the basic building blocks for materials Bioresource Technology: Concept, Tools and Experiences, First Edition Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, Bisma Malik, Rouf Ahmad Bhat, and Khalid Rehman Hakeem © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 504 (McCormick and Kautto 2013) In more simple words, an economy based on biomass rather than fossil fuels Different studies used terms such as knowledge-based bioeconomy (KBBE) or bio-based economy for bioeconomy However, these concepts can be understood as an economy founded on renewable bioresources, such as plant and animal sources (EuropaBio 2011; European Commission 2012b) Europe is considered a pioneer and the global leader in a number of fields of bioresources and its related products (ENDS Europe 2012; European Commission 2012b) Bioeconomy is essential for smart and green growth worldwide, particularly in European countries According to the European Commission (2012a), bioeconomy has a huge market of trillion Euros in Europe and furnishes 22 million jobs in the multiple sector, including bioenergy, chemical, agriculture, food and forestry (Bio-Economy Technology Platforms 2011; Clever Consult 2010) It benefits from almost 9% of total EU labor (European Commission 2012a) These statistics describe not only the magnitude of bioeconomy to the European economy, but also narrate opportunities to amalgamate different sectors and flourish of bio-based products However, the USA and some countries in Asia, like China, are investing woodenly into the bioeconomy This is highlighted by a National bioeconomy Blueprint published in 2012 to rehabilitate bioeconomy and bio-based products The EC fears that long-term competitiveness of Europe is in jeopardy, as Europe holds back these countries in market deployment (European Commission 2012b) Depletion of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, decline in fossil fuels dependence, sagacious management of natural resources and enhanced food security are advantages of transition to a bio-based economy It also gives rise to employment opportunities, both in rural and urban settings Moreover, the establishment of non-food markets (bioenergy) in collaboration with existing food markets and alternative income sources for farmers can give a major boost to rural areas (Langeveld and Sanders 2010) The technical prospective of bioeconomy is spectacular, as portrayed by Bünger (2013) He noted that over 90% of bioresource-based alternatives could be replaced with oil-based products However, the issue is to enhance the scale of activities (e.g., in terms of biomass production) in parallel with meeting key sustainability goals 18.3 Profitability Analysis of Bioresource-based Business Building business models and their profitability analysis are useful tools for assessing opportunities in the markets of bioresources The bioresources markets are founded on the consumption and production of wood products, meat and crops fibers, food, fodder and residues The world bioresource production is about 14,768 million tonnes per year, where half of it comprises of food crops The EU is the largest producer of bio-based products, with 1965 million tonnes per year Its regional production is 13% worldwide, which constitutes approximately 7% of the world population The EU earns €2357 billion annually from the production, processing and sale of bioresources-based products, while these activities generate about 22 million jobs (Scarlat et al 2015) Bioenergy is the lowest price category among the few categories of total market of bioresources There are a few classifications of the bioresource market, in which 505 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 18.3 Profitability Analysis of Bioresource-based Business 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management bioenergy rank last The EU has provided 390 million tons of biomass to the market, equivalent to about 123 million tonnes of oil Through which consumption has been increased from 18% in 2015 to 63% of today, all this information has been collected from European statistical data (Eurostat) Industrial products are higher in price and more diverse than bioenergy, although smaller in scale Forestry and wood products are also included in industrial products where wooden products alone account for almost US$ 500 billion a year Moreover, these also include agro-industrial products based on surfactants, solvents, lubricants, bio-based chemicals, sugar, starch, bioplastic and other biochemical (~US$ 50 billion per year) In the EU, about US$ 230 billion is generated by agro-culture and where around US$ 1000 per tonne biomass is the usual price (Biddy et al 2016; Haveren et al 2008) Nutrition of people and cattle comprise the largest and most diversified bioresourses market In the EU, it uses almost billion tons biomass a year and accounts for more than US$ 1000 billion a year Although the markets of high value products for personal care and medicine are large and diversified, the share of bioresourses in these sectors is still unknown Per ton prices are many times greater than food prices, sometimes up to US$ 25,000 per tonne (Bio-biased Industries 2016) 18.3.1 Short Rotation Cultivation (SRC) When fast-growing species are cultivated in short rotation, the output can escalate Short rotation cultivations mainly use Acacia (Robinia), Eucalyptus (Eucaliptus), Poplar (Populus) and willows (Salix) These SRC species produce a high yield of bioresources within a short span of time These can be harvested a few years after sowing and hence are ready to sell and generate cash flows for the farming business (Bartha et al 2017) This is important for impoverished regions where people with low incomes can generate a livelihood and cannot afford a delay in the payments due to them The bioresources extracted from woodland are used in the production of conventional wood products, such as lumber, laminated panels, round wood and structural timber Additionally, by-products from forests are not wasted but modified into pellets and briquettes for biofuel utilized in heating and electricity generation that further the sale in the national electricity market Those uses can be secured due to afforestation, and thanks to the SRC on plantations that focus on biofuels The producers of bioresources are small farmers who own less than 50 ha land They produce the bioresources for biofuel in addition to various other uses, particularly for foods which support regional and local farming SRS is a substitute of agricultural monocultures and opportunity for smallholdings and disadvantaged lands with poor soil quality close to villages, particularly when SRC plantations are often amalgamated with agroforestry These marginal lands can be inappropriate for housing and suchlike uses, or constitute areas prone to flooding (Hart 2001; Heimlich 1989) Therefore a country, such as Romanian, authorizes SRC species only on poor and less fertile lands after treating with fertilizer, pest control and good preparation The employment of poor lands for SRC is a choice that helps sustainable regional development because it sustains ecosystem services if good soil management techniques are Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 506 applied, stimulates water and soil quality, increases carbon sequestration, and boosts economics for the local people (Lal 2004) Bioresources from SRC are sold to the local businessmen who are usually large owners of cogeneration installations for heat and power (CHP) They can also be responsible for district heating on a subsistence level Since bioresources are less costly and easy to handle in contrast to CHP for heating and electricity, they use woodchips for heating District heating boilers are less energy-efficient than co-generators so they lose more heat as compared to CHP However, district heating can still be used for village requirements with minimum costs Agricultural wastes can be used for bioenergy production, but such technological advancements are rarely available in developing countries For instance, approximately 12.6 million tons biomass per year is left unattended or burned in Romania, which could not be used more efficiently (Scarlat et al 2011) 18.3.2 Ecotourism Ecotourism is rapidly grown and constitutes a huge economic volume which, for example, covered about 24% of all tourism expenditure in 2015, which means that approximately US$ 900 billion is spent on the use of bioresources for leisure and recreational purposes (Krozer and Lordkipanidze 2019) Other researchers reported US$ 600 billion expenditure on ecotourism in the form of bioresources (Balmford et al 2015) The number of tourists using bioresources are increasing with per capita consumption of ecotourism of US$ 117 per year (Balmford et al 2009) Aesthetic natural and environmental qualities enhance ecotourism and hence national income of any country that contributes to such an environmental-friendly environment For instance, Krozer and Lordkipanidze (2019) found that there was substantial income from national parks when governments took environmental-friendly initiatives based on bioresources and were allowed to attract visitors into the framework of nature conservation They further estimated that income generation from visitors usually exceeded that from governmental support Ecotourism is growing fast when compared to other bioresource products such as biofuels For instance, in terms of US$ 100 price per barrel of oil equivalents, ecotourism proved itself a bigger industry than that of the value of biofuels On the one hand, ecotourism generated more demand for bioresources However, a large numbers of visitors are putting pressure on bioresources that degrade biodiversity, silence, beauty and other facilities Therefore, it is necessary to overcome the challenges posed by the large numbers of visitors to nature and environment for sustainable development of ecotourism This can be done if tourists receive environmental education about how to protect nature (Krozer and Christensen-Redzepovic 2006) 18.3.3 District Heating The bioresources for energy production and hence district heating in many areas are available in many countries For instance, Tihamer (2019) estimated energy demands and supplies based on local bioresources regarding district heating He developed district heating based bioenergy on local bioresources in seven villages in Romania, 507 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 18.3 Profitability Analysis of Bioresource-based Business 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management Slovenia, Macedonia, Croatia and Serbia He found that such projections generated positive NPV (net present value), which means that any such project is financially good if developed 18.3.4 Aquatic Biorefinery The aquatic biorefinery business ecosystem is based on aquaculture and includes algae industry, dryland, and freshwater fisheries and marine resources With the expansion of assembling merchandize for the food business, the hydroponics can work with crude materials for various enterprises In the Nordic countries such as Iceland and Norway, the attainable quality of aquatic raw material is their greatest strength It is necessary for a successful aquatic biorefinery business and its value chain (from production to end consumer) that raw materials should be situated nearby and should be fresh when processed The aquatic biomass in such biorefineries is purified and turned efficiently into multiple products for many end users and numerous industries For instance, fish waste can be utilized for algae and omega oils in dietary supplements It can be used in biodiesel production, despite its traditional use as goods for food and feed industries A full industrial hub can be developed near aquaculture ecosystems, where all raw materials can be utilized, energy can be produced from wastes, and nutrients can be recycled to their full potential For instance, organic wastes and residue flow from aquaculture can act as inputs for biogas production and this further refines the rejected waters of the biogas unit into a biofertitilzer for farming In this way, nutrients can be recycled Additionally, energy can be produced from biogas plants which can be used for electricity and heat generation Transportation fuel can also be generated if the biogas plant is suitably upgraded For any successful business model, there should be close connections to many industries The aquatic biorefinery business is the best example of this There are numerous possibilities for synergies between nutrient production, chemical generation, energy and biofuel production, food production, fish farming and algae production The fish farming business can benefit from the algae industry by utilizing the oxygen provided by growing algae and from close proximity of greenhouses to utilize their excess heat One critical angle to consider in aquatic biorefineries treatment facilities is the linkage with reasonable organization of the oceanic assets Sustainable management aims at keeping the strength of the aquatic ecosystems business in the long run and minimization of any antagonistic impacts are necessary for sustainable development of oceanic bioresources Aquatic ecosystem-based ecotourism and other synergistic uses such as nature excursions are necessary for successful future aquatic biorefineries The organizations within the fisheries and aquaculture sector tend to be small Financing is often a bottleneck and co-activity is obligatory in order to have the option to fund improvements and new ventures The organizations chosen to exemplify the possibilities in the aquatic biorefineries business ecosystem were Icelandic Ocean Cluster (Iceland) and the Sybimar Oy (Finland) Sybimar was included as an innovative SME in a business which combines many different concepts within the bioeconomy, having the aquatic biorefinery as a core of the concept (Rönnlund et al 2014) Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 508 18.4 Food Waste to Bioresource Businesses and Their Efficacies 18.4.1 Biofertilizer and Biogas Production There are four ways to handle the food wastes from mass catering: i) donation to charity; ii) animal feed; iii) incineration; and iv) landfill The small portion of the total surplus is going to charity at a cost involving its distribution However, most of the food distributed to charity is unhygienic and rotten, so cannot be used and is thus wasted Usually, caterers invite feed companies to collect food waste for animal feed at nominal or zero cost Unfortunately, most feed companies rarely take advantage of collecting from caterers Moreover, studies have found that food waste used for animal feed can result in severe health issues for the animals that will receive the feed For instance, Salemdeeb et al (2017) reported that food waste for animal feed caused diseases such as mad cow disease and scrapie Thus, they were of the opinion that it can a be large threat, not only to animal health but to the public also Perhaps, for this reason, untreated food waste for animal feed is now banned in the USA and Canada Moreover, China recently passed the Chinese Animal Industry Act which articulated that food waste before high-temperature treatment is not allowed to be used as animal feed (Ma and Liu 2019) Another two methods of handling food waste in Pakistan are incineration and landfilling Incineration and landfill are the main management practices adopted historically to handle food waste; however, these tactics have serious impacts on economic, social and environmental systems All four management techniques are used to handle food waste in Pakistan However, other countries, particularly developing countries, are using food waste as potential fertilizers (Gutierrez et al 2018; Lam et al 2018) In this regard, anaerobic digestion, composting and fertilizer production are the promising techniques to produce energy that further can be used for heating, electricity and fertilizing agricultural land Furthermore, these techniques relieve burdens on climate change that may be caused due to incineration and landfilling Although bio-fertilizer demand through composting is contributing to agricultural and horticultural industries, it takes a long processing time (15–30 days) Compost also creates other environmental issues such as its carbon footprint and secondary pollutants Therefore, anaerobic digestion that is also eco-friendly can be used for large commercial purposes Anaerobic digestion has a large treatment capacity of more than 150 tons of food waste per day It has more energy conversion efficiency and can be used for small events to large multi-storey buildings having a capacity for thousands of guests Moreover, food waste can be used for bioenergy recovery that can be good business, as can be seen in Box 18.1 18.4.2 Biomethane Biogas cleaned from contaminants and upgraded through removal of CO2 is known as biomethane Biomethane can be produced by using a biogas purification system using water scrubbers, membranes and bio-filters It can be used as an alternative to natural gas in natural gas vehicles (NGVs) and its usage has grown rapidly worldwide Over 18 509 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 18.4 Food Waste to Bioresource Businesses and Their Efficacies 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management million vehicles were operating on natural gas by year 2015 in many countries such as Brazil, Argentina, China, Pakistan and Iran (Khan et al 2015) In Mexico, “the cleanest and securest fuel in the country” was adopted and the number of NGVs are supposed to increase as SEMARNAT invests in projects to encourage the use of fuels with a low carbon footprint (SEMARNAT 2017) This bio-based product craze has been developed in Europe and natural gas is replacing traditional fuels (petrol and diesel) in buses (Bord Gais 2010) The NGV fleet in Sweden is estimated at 44,000 vehicles (Le Fevre 2014) Biomethane has been used in all the metropolitan city transports of Linkoping since 2002 Linkoping used an anaerobic digestion plant that treats a combination of industrial organic waste, abattoir and household wastes, and animal manure (IEA 2005) Biomethane from food waste potentially produced 42.32 PJ per year, equivalent to 6.5% of the energy content of diesel used in transport in 2015 in Mexico (Gutiérrez et al 2018) By replacing diesel with biomethane from food waste, a reduction of 17.91 MtCO2e can be effected, 6.06% of the 2050 GHG emissions target (Gutiérrez et al 2018) Furthermore, Gutiérrez et al (2018) estimated the economic feasibility of a biomethane plant for a Mexican city using two scenarios In the first scenario, economic performance based on net present value (NPV) gave a positive outcome In the second scenario, the NPV value was negative and the authors recommended that this situation can be economically viable if a subsidy of $US 1.38/GJ is applied, equivalent to 5% of the cost of diesel 18.4.3 Bioethanol Fermentation Commercial gasoline prices are on a rising trend despite its environmental implications For instance, only in China prices rose to CNY 6200/ton in 2016 from CNY3750/ton in 2005 Therefore, demand for bioethanol and its price both increased steadily Fossil fuels can partially be replaced when gasoline is blended with bioethanol to combat environmental issues because of its density and combustibility (Manzetti and Andersen 2015) Due to its efficacy and environmentally-friendly behavior, more than 40 countries have adopted the uses of biofuel-ethanol and automotive ethanol gasoline It accounts for 60% world consumption of gasoline with the annual rate of about 600 million tons of bioethanol (Jiao et al 2019) Sugar and corn are the main cops that act as feedstocks for bioethanol production in many countries However, these too have environmental complications due to many obvious reasons, and thus this approach is not environmentally sustainable and economically viable Therefore, it is needed to explore alternative, sustainable and green feedstocks for bioethanol production toward sustainable economical and environmental development Food waste management is one of the green approaches that can act as feedstock for bioethanol production through anaerobic or aerobic fermentation, as food waste is rich in carbohydrate For instance, Kiran et al (2015) produced bioethanol with a concentration of 58 g L−1 from food waste fermentation, although 30–40% of solid residue still required to be managed further Similarly, Ma et al (2017) found an innovative approach, fungal mash (pre-treatment with in-situ produced hydrolytic enzymes), for bioethanol production through food waste This approach is more cost-effective as compared to the approach of Kiran et al (2015), with about 90% total residue reduction of food waste, while it has produced a higher bioethanol concentration of 71.8 g L−1 Thus, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 510 Box 18.1 Potential of food waste to bioenergy recovery: An emerging business Currently, 1.3 billion tonnes of food per year is being wasted worldwide (FAO 2014) and about one-third (33.3%) of total food production (from food processing to consumption) is wasting globally (FAO 2018) As per the FAO, food wastage is higher at the processing level in developing countries, while it is higher at the retail and consumer levels in developed countries Studies have shown that the per capita food loss varies from region to region and even within the same region For instance, it is 280–300 kg per year in Europe and North America, while it is 120–170 kg per year in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia The United Nations has targeted to halve the per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels by 2030, defined under the Sustainable Development Goal 12 (UN 2015) However, food wastage is still a real conundrum as the study reported that food waste in Asian countries might rise to 416 million tonnes in 2025 (Melikoglu et al 2013) In Pakistan, conditions are worste, for instance, the Agha Khan University (2011) reported that 44% of children under 5 years of age were stunted and about 60% of the population is food insecure in that country Similarly, Dawn (2016) reported that about 40% of the cooked food in Pakistan is wasted Therefore, such inefficiencies should be curbed as the country is already suffering from malnutrition and food insecurity It has been estimated that 3.3 billion tonnes of CO2 is accumulating in the atmosphere every year due to food waste and thus making this one of the major sources of environmental pollution There are a number of reasons for CO2 emission, such as dumping of food waste in open areas or into landfill Hence, food waste becomes a major part of the municipal waste Conventionally, CO2 emissions increase in bulk quantity when this municipal waste is incinerated (Agarwal et al 2005; Kumar and Goel 2009; Kumar et al 2009; Pattnaik and Reddy 2010) Food waste has a high moisture contents, so when it is incinerated it releases many dioxins which may further lead to health and environmental issues (Katami et al 2004) Therefore, proper management of food waste is urgent (Tayyab et al 2019) Food waste is higher at the stage of consumption (56%) as compared to the manufacturing phase (38%) throughout the food supply chain (Monier et al 2010) At the consumption stage, restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, food processing plants, household and commercial kitchens (catering) are the main contributors of food waste Among these, catering services contribute about 30% to the total food served (FAO 2014) Catering services are heavily used for large events attended by thousands of people These catering services are mostly provided internally or sometimes externally Thus, the demand for catering services are increasing day-by-day Eventually, food waste increases with these growing catering services (Tayyab et al 2019) It is estimated that catering services alone had a value of US$ 125.5 billion in 2016 and further have increased to US$ 153.2 billion in 2021 (Business Wire 2017) Particularly, catering services increased in South East Asia and Pakistan due to cultural practices that significantly increased the number of large catering events (SMEDA 2016) Therefore, food waste is one of the greatest opportunities for renewable energy production, and so proper management is required to handle these wastes 511 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 18.4 Food Waste to Bioresource Businesses and Their Efficacies 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management In developing countries, biogas plants from animal dung have been successfully established in rural areas These have been used for tube-wells (for pumping waters), electricity generation for agricultural operations and domestic use of biogas in rural areas Food waste that is enriched in biogas as compared to animal dung has more potential and is used for commercial purposes, particularly for catering services Food waste is rich in minerals, starch, lipid, protein, nutrients, cellulose and trace elements (Ayomoh et al 2008; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012) Food waste can be used to produce multi-functional protein feeds known as dehydrated feed and biochemical feed (San Martin et al 2016) Therefore, it has more potential to produce biogas that further can be used for other auxiliary purposes Generation of biogas from food waste has already been adopted in developed and other developing countries, but in Pakistan there is still a need to utilize it on a commercial basis it seems obvious that the food waste fermentation for bioethanol production could not be an environmentally-friendly solution in the near future if the post-concentration and purification approaches cannot be adapted to meet various commercial requirements 18.5 Bioresources for Risk Prevention and Poverty Alleviation Metropolitan regions need a huge volume of bioresources in playgrounds, orchards, gardens and plantations, and such vegetation is regularly abundant in biodiversity Their main role is for the well-being and prosperity of the population; however, they additionally generate other commodities, for example, biofuels Bioresources encourage healthy living through the natural habitat Trees give evaporation and shade, which have a cooling impact Such a natural cooling impact is especially significant in dense metropolitan territories where “heat islands” may create health risks Plants additionally add to flood avoidance as they slow down the action of waves, temper water flow and create spongy soil Moreover, bioresources provide other cultural ecosystem services such as combinations of the cultural and regulatory ecosystem services usually known as “building with nature.” Bioresources are also useful in wastewater gardens, constructed wetlands and rooftop vegetation Such vegetation is useful to control water and air pollution in combination with education, scientific and aesthetic services Moreover, in education, healthcare and tourism, there are more direct and indirect uses of bio-based resources Bioresources help to reduce poverty, particularly in developing countries For instance, Badola and Aitken (2010) found that bioresources had helped with poverty alleviation in the Indian Himalaya They studied the use of wild biological bioresources such as rhododendrons, orchids, edibles, medicinal plants and ethnobiological knowledge packages to reduce poverty in the Himalaya, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh states Among others, herbal medicinal plants have a global market value of US$ 43 billion per year (Christie 2001) Many bioresources-based plant varieties create a livelihood for local communities but in recent years over utilization of fodder, medicinal plants, food sources and firewood has reduced their sustainable development For centuries, the sustainable use of Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 512 biodiversity has been the mainstay for both poverty reduction and biological conservation For any project to be successful, particularly in relation to bioresources and biodiversity, involvement of society as a whole is necessary The main role of civil society is to create harmony and support bioresource-based entrepreneurships that help poverty reduction and sustainable development of bioresources 18.6 Conclusion The bioresources markets have a pivotal role in both developing and developed economies The current chapter highlights the profitability of bioresource-based products and their efficacies The chapter discusses how many countries have efficiently produced and utilized bio-based products and earned multi billions in the national income Hence, many economies are going bioeconomic based on bioresources Such economies are not only helpful in poverty reduction but also business and environmental risks are reduced to a great extent that further ensures food availability for ever-increase populations In most businesses, NPV values are positive, which represents the soundness of bio-based business Although in some businesses NPV was negative, for which subsidy is recommended, due to high positive externality for the environment where social benefits are more than that of social costs Food waste converted to bioenergy recovery is spreading around the globe There is still much potential of food waste for biofertilizer, biogas and biofuel production Managing food waste in such a way will ensure a safer and cleaner environment and reduce the burden on municipal waste In developed countries, biogas production from food wastes has been developed but still there is a need to build such units in developing countries to fulfil their demand for energy References Agarwal, A., Singhmar, A., Kulshrestha, M et al (2005) Municipal solid waste recycling and associated markets in Delhi, India Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (1): 73–90 Ayomoh, M.K.O., Oke, S.A., Adedeji, W.O et al (2008) An approach to tackling the environmental and health impacts of municipal solid waste disposal in developing countries Journal of Environmental Management 88 (1): 108–114 Badola, H.K and Aitken, S (2010) Biological resources and poverty alleviation in the Indian Himalayas Biodiversity 11 (3–4): 8–18 Balmford, A., Beresford, J., Green, J et al (2009) A global perspective on trends in naturebased tourism PLoS Biology (6): e1000144 Balmford, A., Green, J.M., Anderson, M et al (2015) Walk on the wild side: Estimating the global magnitude of visits to protected areas PLoS Biology 13 (2): e1002074 https://doi org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002074 Bartha, S., Vajda, B., Duarte, L.C et al (2017) Environmental and Economical Assessment Analysis of the Energy Willow A New Biomass Source for the Biorefinery Industry 513 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License References 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management Resilient Society, Multidisciplinary Contributions from Economic, Law, Policy, Engineering, Agriculture and Life Sciences Retrieved from http://www.editura.bioflux com.ro/docs/Binder1.pdf#page=10 (accessed April 2021) Biddy, M.J., Scarlata, C., and Kinchin, C (2016) Chemicals from Biomass: A Market Assessment Of Bioproducts With Near-Term Potential (No NREL/TP-5100-65509) Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) Bio-based Industries (2016) A Public–Private Partnership on Bio-based Industries, Bio-based for Growth p 12 http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/ Bio-Based-Industries-PPP-Vision-doc.pdf (accessed April 2021) Bio-Economy Technology Platforms-BECOTEPS (2011) The European Bioeconomy in 2030: Delivering Sustainable Growth by Addressing the Grand Societal Challenges Brussels, Belgium: Bio-Economy Technology Platforms Bord Gais (2010) Compressed Natural Gas Transport Fuel for Your Vehicles http://www gasnetworks.ie/Global/Gas.Industry/NGV/CNG_Info_Sheet.pdf Bünger, M (2013) Biofuels: Putting Pressure on Petrol Available online: http://www renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2010/06/biofuels-putting-pressure-onpetrol (accessed 30 March 2021) Business Wire (2017) Technavio Reveals Cost Saving Opportunities for the Global Catering Services Market 2017–2021 https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170131005506/ en/Technavio-Reveals-Cost-avingOpportunities-Global-Catering (accessed February 2019) Christie, A (2001) Herbs for health, but how safe are they Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79 (7): 691–692 Clever Consult (2010) The Knowledge Based Bio-Economy in Europe: Achievements and Challenges Brussels, Belgium: Clever Consult Dawn (2012) Food Wastage at Weddings Retrieved from https://www.dawn.com/ news/746508 (accessed on 28 October, 2021) ENDS Europe (2012) EU biotech research plan Available online: http://www.endseurope com (accessed 29 March 2021) EPA (2014) Landfill Methane Outreach Program http://epaglobalmethanestage icfwebservices.com/lmop/international/mexicano.html (accessed April 2021) EuropaBio-European Association for Bioindustries (2011) Building a Bio-based Economy for Europe in 2020 Brussels, Belgium: European Association for Bioindustries European Commission (2012b) Staff Working Document on Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bioeconomy for Europe SWD (2012) final Brussels, Belgium: European Commission European Commission-EC (2012a) Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bioeconomy for Europe COM (2012) final Brussels, Belgium: European Commission FAO (2014) Food Losses and Waste in the Latin America and the Caribbean FAO (2018) Save Food: Global Initiative on Food Loss and Waste Reduction http://www.fao org/save-food/resources/keyfindings/en (accessed 22 March 2018) Gutiérrez, E.C., Wall, D.M., O’Shea, R et al (2018) An economic and carbon analysis of biomethane production from food waste to be used as a transport fuel in Mexico Journal of Cleaner Production 196: 852–862 Hart, J.F (2001) Half a century of cropland change Geographical Review 91 (3): 525–543 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2001.tb00239.x Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 514 Haveren, J.V., Scott, E.L., and Sanders, J (2008) Bulk chemicals from biomass Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining: Innovation for a Sustainable Economy (1): 41–57 Heimlich, R.E (1989) Productivity and Erodibility of US Cropland (No 604) US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service Hoornweg, D and Bhada-Tata, P (2012) What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management Vol 15 116 Washington, DC: World Bank IEA (2005) 100 % Biogas for Urban Transport in Link€oping, Sweden Biogas in Buses, Cars and Trains, IEA BIOENERGY TASK 37 Energy from Biogas and Landfill Gas Retrieved from http://www.iea-biogas.net/files/daten-redaktion/download/linkoping_final.pdf (accessed 28 October, 2021) Jiao, J., Li, J., and Bai, Y (2019) Uncertainty analysis in the life cycle assessment of cassava ethanol in China Journal of Cleaner Production 206: 438–451 Katami, T., Yasuhara, A., and Shibamoto, T (2004) Formation of dioxins from incineration of foods found in domestic garbage Environmental Science & Technology 38 (4): 1062–1065 Khan, M.I., Yasmin, T., and Shakoor, A (2015) Technical overview of compressed natural gas (CNG) as a transportation fuel Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51: 785–797 Kiran, E.U., Trzcinski, A.P., and Liu, Y (2015) Enhancing the hydrolysis and methane production potential of mixed food waste by an effective enzymatic pretreatment Bioresource Technology 183: 47–52 Krozer, Y and Christensen-Redzepovic, E (2006) Sustainable innovations at tourist destinations Tourism Review International 10 (1–2): 113–124 Krozer, Y and Lordkipanidze, M (2019) Bioresources for cultural services In: Economics of Bioresources, 195–205 Cham: Springer Kumar, K.N and Goel, S (2009) Characterization of municipal solid waste (MSW) and a proposed management plan for Kharagpur, West Bengal, India Resources, Conservation and Recycling 53 (3): 166–174 Kumar, S., Bhattacharyya, J.K., Vaidya, A.N et al (2009) Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class II towns in India: An insight Waste Management 29 (2): 883–895 Lal, R (2004) Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change Geoderma 123 (1–2): 1–22 Lam, C.M., Iris, K.M., Medel, F et al (2018) Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis on sustainable food waste management: The case of Hong Kong International Airport Journal of Cleaner Production 187: 751–762 doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.160 Langeveld, J.W and Sanders, J.P.M (2010) General Introduction In: The Biobased Economy: Biofuels, Materials and Chemicals in the Post-oil Era, vol 2010 (ed J.W Langeveld, J.P.M Sanders, and M Meeusen), 3–17 London, UK: Earthscan Le Fevre, C.N (2014) The Prospects for Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel in Europe Oxford Institute for Energy Studies Ma, Y and Liu, Y (2019) Turning food waste to energy and resources towards a great environmental and economic sustainability: An innovative integrated biological approach Biotechnology Advances 37 (7): 107414 Ma, Y., Cai, W., and Liu, Y (2017) An integrated engineering system for maximizing bioenergy production from food waste Applied Energy 206: 83–89 515 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License References 18 Profitability and Economics Analysis of Bioresource Management Manzetti, S and Andersen, O (2015) A review of emission products from bioethanol and its blends with gasoline Background for new guidelines for emission control Fuel 140: 293–301 McCormick, K and Kautto, N (2013) The bioeconomy in Europe: An overview Sustainability (6): 2589–2608 Melikoglu, M., Lin, C., and Webb, C (2013) Analysing global food waste problem: Pinpointing the facts and estimating the energy content Open Engineering (2): 157–164 https://doi.org/10.2478/s13531-012-0058-5 Monier, V., Mudgal, S., Escalon, V et al (2010) Preparatory study on food waste across EU 27 Report for the European Commission [DG ENV – Directorate C] Pattnaik, S and Reddy, M.V (2010) Assessment of municipal solid waste management in Puducherry (Pondicherry), India Resources, Conservation and Recycling 54 (8): 512–520 Rönnlund, I., Pursula, T., Bröckl, M et al (2014) Creating Value from Bioresources: Innovation in Nordic Bioeconomy Nordic Innovation Salemdeeb, R., Vivanco, D.F., Al-Tabbaa, A et al (2017) A holistic approach to the environmental evaluation of food waste prevention Waste Management 59: 442–450 San Martin, D., Ramos, S., and Zufía, J (2016) Valorisation of food waste to produce new raw materials for animal feed Food Chemistry 198: 68–74 Scarlat, N., Blujdea, V., and Dallemand, J.F (2011) Assessment of the availability of agricultural and forest residues for bioenergy production in Romania Biomass & Bioenergy 35 (5): 1995–2005 Scarlat, N., Dallemand, J.F., Monforti-Ferrario, F et al (2015) The role of biomass and bioenergy in a future bioeconomy: Policies and facts Environmental Development 15: 3–34 SEMARNAT (2017) Anuncia SEMARNAT 160 MDP para impulsar transporte público que use combustibles de baja huella de carbon https://www.gob.mx/semarnat/prensa/ anuncia-semarnat-160-mdp-para-impulsartransporte-publico-que-use-combustibles-debaja-huella-de-carbono (accessed March 2021) SMEDA (2016) Small and Medium Enterprises Development Authority, Ministry of Industries & Production, Government of Pakistan http://www.commerce.gov.pk/ wpcontent/uploads/pdf/Banquet-Hall-500-Hosts.pdf Tayyab, A., Ahmad, Z., Mahmood, T et al (2019) Anaerobic co-digestion of catering food waste utilizing Parthenium hysterophorus as co-substrate for biogas production Biomass & Bioenergy 124: 74–82 Tihamer, S (2019) District Heating in Villages In: Economics of Bioresources 125–134 Cham: Springer UN (2015) Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Resolution adopted by the General Assembly Available at https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20 Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 516 Index a Alkaloids 41, 44, 60 Arid 4, 10, Anti-nutritional factors 13 Antioxidants 13–15, 101, 133, 144, 145, 150 Antimony 148 Aflatoxins 141 Aspergillus 40, 44, 68, 80, 141 Agarose 40, 117, 123 Alginates 41, 44, 46 Aluminum toxicity 227 Abiotic stress 19, 162, 167, 168, 178, 182, 186, 191, 197, 204, 206, 226 Anti-Diabetic 3, 15, 39 Anti-carcinogenic 15, 46 Agro-ecosystem b B-complex vitamins 13 Brown-Top Millet 3, 9, 10, 14 Buckwheat 6, 31 Biomass 19, 20, 49, 96, 101, 105, 198, 203, 227, 291–298 Biopesticide 57, 73, 424–428, 430, 433, 434, 436 Bioprospecting 57–61, 73, 74, 78, 80–85, 332–334, 338–340 Bagasse 97, 106, 296, 338 Biodegradability 48, 412, 97, 100, 102, 103, 107 Biocatalyst 403,404 Bioreactor 411, 413, 414 Bio-Fortification 162, 228, 244 Bioeconomy 504, 505, 508 c Cellulose 31, 48, 81, 93, 96, 98, 100, 103, 106, 107, 117, 148, 295, 304, 319, 322, 336, 355, 409, 512 Combustion 293, 294, 297, 301, 305, 453, 454 Critical temperature 111 Cyclodextrin 138, 142, 156, 422 Cyto-toxicity 15 Climatic change 3, 5, 17–25, 161–165, 179, 196, 197, 206–208, 251, 252, 304, 348, 445, 457, 509 Cancer 3, 14, 15, 22, 29, 39, 43, 59, 61, 374 CRISPR/Cas 9, 161, 205, 380, 381–383 Cosmetics 41, 49, 57, 58, 71, 74, 75, 145, 326, 349 d Drug delivery 71, 96 Digester 310–314, 318, 320–325, 353 Degradation 18, 33, 49, 81, 93, 100, 101–107, 112, 116, 148, 292, 298, 304, 318 Dyes 80, 81, 85, 112, 117, 133, 144, 145, 148, 376 Drought tolerant 8, 18, 207 e Extremophiles 48, 332–340 e-NOSE 133, 147 e-TONGUE 133, 147 Ecotourism 504, 507, 508 f Fossil fuel 84, 291–295, 298, 304, 444, 446, 450, 453, 454, 457, 505, 510 Furfural 322 Bioresource Technology: Concept, Tools and Experiences, First Edition Tanveer Bilal Pirzadah, Bisma Malik, Rouf Ahmad Bhat, and Khalid Rehman Hakeem © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 517 Index Feedstock 104, 166, 291, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 310–321, 326, 349, 453, 510 Food security 17, 18, 143, 160, 163–165, 185, 186, 191, 196, 197, 204–206 Functional Food 3, 13, 15, 21, 28, 29, 31, 42, 50 g Gastro-Intestinal 3, 15 Gasification 291, 293, 294, 320 Genomics 162, 208, 223, 237, 244, 246, 247, 338, 456 Genetic diversity 18, 20, 160–164, 177–179, 182, 183, 185, 187, 189, 192–195 Global warming 18, 20, 21, 84, 107, 291, 347, 445, 446, 450 Gluten-free 6, 13 h Heterotrophic 44 Hydroponics 30, 31, 34, 383, 508 Haploid 160, 166, 172, 204, 222, 242, 249 Hyperaccumulation 338, 395, 396 Hidden hunger crisis 35 Halophiles 332, 339 Herbicides 204, 383, 425, 480, 496 i Immobilization 116, 117, 123, 134, 138–140, 149, 150, 376, 399, 401, 406, 407, 409, 412–415 Immune modulators 13 Immunomodulatory 39 Immunogenica 43 Immunosensors 137, 138, 139, 142 l Landfill 94, 101, 292, 297, 310, 311, 319–321, 326, 338, 375, 400, 509, 511 Liquefaction 291, 295 m Microgreens 28–35 Metallophiles 332–334, 339, 340 Mycotoxin 133, 141, 142, 150 Multiline Breeding 160, 170, 171 Municipal Solid Waste 101, 291, 291, 297, 319 n Nanomaterials 98, 134, 140, 143, 146, 147, 150, 349, 352, 405 Nitriloside 15 Nutraceuticals 13, 38–40, 44–46, 50, 51, 402 Nanobarcodes 133, 147 Nanotechnology 133, 134, 141–143, 147, 443 Nano-phytoremediation 474, 475 Nanofertilizers 472, 493, 495, 496 o Omics technology 340 Osteoporosis 3, 16 Oxidative stress 14 p Probiotics 38, 42, 49 Pyrolysis 291, 293–295, 298–305, 375, 452 Psychrophiles 332, 339 Photobioreactors 347, 353, 356, 360, 361 Phytoremediation 373, 375, 376, 377–387 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 93, 105 r Renewable Energy 292, 297, 453, 511 Recalcitrant 318, 447 s Smart Crops 3, 19 Shuttle Breeding 160, 166, 171–173 Siloxane 310, 320, 326, 327 Sweeteners 133, 145 Short Rotation Cultivation 504, 506 t Thermophiles 332, 338 Threshold level 18, 207 Threshold temperature 111 w Waste 17, 34, 73, 81, 97, 98, 101, 106, 107, 109, 111, 143, 146, 292–305, 311–326, 338, 340, 347–349, 374, 400, 410–411, 428, 436, 452, 454, 457, 474, 481, 497, 509–513 z Zinc 43, 47, 49, 97, 142, 197, 204, 207, 244, 249, 340, 374, 379, 380, 387, 434, 468, 472, 478 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by THU VIEN - Fiji - Hinari access , Wiley Online Library on [30/03/2023] See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 518