Masters thesis of technology (fashion textiles) studies in the performance of fire resistant woven fabrics for australian firefighting station wear

Studies in the performance of fire-resistant woven fabrics for Australian Firefighting Station Wear A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Technology (Fashion & Textiles) Vanessa Perri BAppSc (Textile Technology) with Distinction, RMIT University School of Fashion and Textiles College of Design and Social Context RMIT University July, 2016 Declaration I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed Vanessa Perri July, 2016 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all firefighters (past and present) for their courage and commitment in protecting communities throughout the nation I would like to acknowledge and thank my supervisors Professor Rajiv Padhye and Dr Lyndon Arnold for their continued support, guidance and encouragement throughout the years Also, thank you Dr Lyndon Arnold for your valuable suggestions and patience in thesis revision I also wish to express my gratitude to RMIT University and the School of Fashion and Textiles for funding this research My sincere thanks to Bruck Textiles Pty Ltd (Wangaratta Fabric Mill) and Jamie Graham for facilitating the weaving of the Experimental fabrics For their candor and contributions to my research, I wish to express thanks to Russell Shephard (Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council (AFAC)), Mark Tarbett and Jeff Green (CFA); Arthur Tindall AFSM (SACFS); Darren Warwick (MFB); Hugh Jones (TFS); Clinton Demkin (NSWFB); Cameron Stott (SAMFS); Chris Lucas and Bill Wright (Bureau of Meteorology); Dr Brad Aisbett (Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences Deakin University); Warren Hoare (Lion Apparel); Wendy MacManus and Ron Williams My appreciation is also extended to Mr Stanley M Fergusson for his assistance with sourcing raw materials and dyeing fabric samples; RMIT Textile Testing Services, specifically Trudie Orchard (Manager) and Fiona Greygoose (Laboratory Supervisor) for graciously permitting use of their facilities and for their assistance during textile testing; Dr Sylwia Bogusz for her guidance in the beginning of the thesis writing process, and the late Harold Heffernan for his knowledge, guidance and support, your cheeky laugh and smile are greatly missed For their administrative assistance, I wish to thank Dr Jenny Underwood (Higher Degree by Research Coordinator), David Castle (Research Administration Officer) and Belinda Michail (Research Administration Officer) iii I would like to thank my devoted family for their love and support, especially my mum, Grace My appreciations are also extended to my friends, with special thanks to Jody Fenn and Lara Morcombe for their help and encouragement To the most important person in my life, Daniel Pell, thank you for your endless love and unfailing support which gave me the encouragement and determination to complete my master's degree iv DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late father, Cosimo Michael Perri You are always in my heart, and will forever be missed v Contents Declaration ii Acknowledgements iii Dedication v Contents vi List of Figures ix List of Tables xi List of Appendices .xiii Abbreviations xiv Executive Summary Chapter Purpose of Study 1.1 Objectives of study 1.2 Research questions 1.3 Limitations of study 1.3.1 Delimitations Chapter Background Research 10 2.1 The need for a study into Station Wear 10 2.2 Fire and the changing Australian climate 11 2.2.1 Australia and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 11 2.2.2 Comparison between Australia's fire climate and other countries 13 2.3 Heat as a hazard to human health 15 2.3.1 Environmental stress and protective clothing 15 2.3.2 Thermoregulation of the human body 18 2.3.3 Comfort 21 2.3.4 Physiological profile of a firefighter 25 2.4 Firefighting Protective Clothing (FPC) 29 2.4.1 Short history of firefighting in Australia 29 2.4.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 30 2.4.3 Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) and the role of Station Wear 32 2.5 Requirements for protection 35 2.5.1 Station Wear performance requirements 35 2.5.2 Design considerations of Station Wear uniforms 36 vi Chapter Materials (Fibres, Yarns, Fabrics & Finishes) 40 3.1 Current firefighting Station Wear fabrics in Australia 40 3.2 Fibre selection, intimate yarn blends and flame-retardant finishes for Station Wear 42 3.3 Yarn selection 49 3.4 Woven fabrics 53 3.4.1 Plain weave 55 3.4.2 Twill weave 56 Chapter Research Design 58 4.1 Methodology 58 4.2 Methods 61 4.2.1 Sample manufacturing methods: weaving and finishing 61 4.2.2 Commercial and Experimental sample fabrics 62 4.3 Firefighting PPC Standards, test methods and fabric performance requirements 63 4.3.1 Limitations of current Firefighting PPC Standards 63 4.3.2 Method of test result interpretation using available Australian Firefighting PPC and work wear Standards 65 4.4 Test methods 68 4.4.1 Mass per unit area 69 4.4.2 Cover factor 69 4.4.3 Limited Flame Spread 70 4.4.4 Convective Heat Resistance 71 4.4.5 Tensile Strength (Cut strip method) 71 4.4.6 Tear Resistance (Wing-Rip method) 73 4.4.7 Sweating Guarded-Hotplate (Thermal and Vapour Resistance) 75 4.4.8 Liquid Moisture Transport (Moisture Management Tester) 77 4.4.9 Determination of the effects of UV degradation on material aging: Colourfastness to light (MBTF) 81 Chapter Results & Discussion 84 5.1 Preliminary fabric testing: structural and physical properties 84 5.2 Stage One Testing: Commercial and Experimental fabrics 87 5.2.1 Introduction 87 5.2.2 Limited Flame Spread 87 5.2.3 Sweating Guarded-Hotplate Test: Thermal and Water-vapour Resistance 92 5.2.4 Tear Resistance (Wing-Rip method) 98 vii 5.2.5 Tensile Strength 102 5.2.6 Initial UV experiment: Commercial MCA fabric 107 5.3 Stage Two Testing on the best-candidate fabrics 111 5.3.1 Introduction 111 5.3.2 Convective Heat Resistance (CHR) 112 5.3.3 Moisture Management Tester (MMT) 114 5.3.4 Degradation of best-candidate fabric properties due to artificial (MBTF) light exposure 126 5.3.5 Irradiated Tear Resistance 127 5.3.6 Irradiated Limited Flame Spread 130 Chapter Conclusions & Recommendations 135 6.1 Conclusions 135 6.2 Recommendations 145 References 147 Appendix A 169 viii List of Figures Figure 2.1 Number of days that Australian mean temperatures have averaged in the warmest one percent of records 12 Figure 3.1 Modified plain weave repeat unit cell for Experimental fabric B3W1 56 Figure 3.2 Modified 2/1 twill weave repeat unit cell for Experimental fabric B3W2 57 Figure 4.1 Methodology 58-9 Figure 4.2 The apparatus for a fabric tensile test (a) constant rate of extension; (b) load cell; (c) clamps; (d) fixed jaw; (e) specimen and (f) gauge length 73 Figure 4.3 Wing-Rip test specimen in Instron jaws 74 Figure 4.4 Sketch of MMT Sensors, (a) Sensor structure; (b) Measuring rings 77 Figure 4.5 Flow chart of fabric classification method 80 Figure 4.6 Spectral power distribution of MBTF lamp (500 W Phillips HPML) compared with noon sunlight 82 Figure 5.1 Dyeing process for B2W1, B2W2, C1W1 & C1W2 Experimental fabrics 85 Figure 5.2 Dyeing process for B1W1, B1W2, B3W1 & B3W2 Experimental fabrics 86 Figure 5.3 Example of the two Experimental fabrics that passed: (a) B1W2 flame spread, 2/1 twill weave, weft specimen 1; (b) B3W2 flame spread, 2/1 twill weave, weft specimen Examples of Experimental fabrics in a 50/50, aramid/merino blend ratio that failed: (c) B2W1 flame spread, plain weave, weft specimen 1; (d) C1W1 flame spread, plain weave, weft specimen 3; (e) B2W2 flame spread, 2/1 twill weave, weft specimen 1; (f) C1W2 flame spread, 2/1 twill weave, weft specimen 90 Figure 5.4 Example of the warp burning behaviour of Experimental fabric B2W1 91 Figure 5.5 Rct summary of the Commercial and the Experimental fabrics 93 Figure 5.6 Ret summary of the Commercial and the Experimental fabrics 95 Figure 5.7 Mean Warp Tearing force (N) and Standard compliance of the Commercial and Experimental fabrics 100 Figure 5.8 Mean Weft Tearing force (N) and Standard compliance of the Commercial and Experimental fabrics 101 Figure 5.9 Warp Tensile Failure Load Summary 103 Figure 5.10 Weft Tensile Failure Load Summary 105 Figure 5.11 Pre- and post-irradiated MCA fabric Tensile Failure Load (N) Summary and Standard compliance 109 Figure 5.12 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Content vs Time: Melba Fortress® 116 ix Figure 5.13 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Location vs Time: Melba Fortress® 116 Figure 5.14 Fingerprint moisture management properties: Melba Fortress® 117 Figure 5.15 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Content vs Time: Commercial MCA 119 Figure 5.16 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Location vs Time: Commercial MCA 119 Figure 5.17 Fingerprint moisture management properties: Commercial MCA 119 Figure 5.18 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Location vs Time: Experimental B1W2 120 Figure 5.19 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Content vs Time: Experimental B1W2 120 Figure 5.20 Fingerprint moisture management properties: Experimental B1W2 121 Figure 5.21 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Content vs Time: Experimental B3W2 122 Figure 5.22 Fabric Moisture Transport, Water Location vs Time: Experimental B3W2 122 Figure 5.23 Fingerprint moisture management properties: Experimental B3W2 123 Figure 5.24 OMMC Grading for the two Commercial and the two Experimental fabrics 125 Figure 5.25 Pre- and post-irradiated Mean Warp Tearing Force (N) Summary and Standard compliance 128 Figure 5.26 Pre- and post-irradiated Mean Weft Tearing Force (N) Summary and Standard compliance 129 Figure 5.27 Formation of 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469: 2005 BS EN 659: 2003 +A1:2008 BS EN 14605: 2005 Type of PPE Australian/New Zealand Standard – Protective Clothing for Wildland Firefighting Australian/New Zealand Standard – Protective Clothing for Firefighters, Structural Firefighting Australian/New Zealand Standard – Protective Footwear for Firefighters Australian/New Zealand Standard – Occupational Footwear Australian/New Zealand Standard – Structural Firefighting Helmet Australian/New Zealand Standard – Structural Firefighting Glove Australian Standard – Occupational Protective Helmets, Wildland Application Clothing for protection against hazardous chemicals - Protection against general or specific chemicals British/European Standard – Protective Helmets for Structural Firefighters British/European Standard – Protective Footwear for Firefighters European Standard - designed to assess the performance of a fabric or layers of fabric for their ability to resist heavy rubbing, cutting by a blade or sharp object, tearing, and puncture by a pointed object British/European Standard – Industrial Safety Helmets, Wildland Application British/European Standard – Protective Clothing for Firefighters, Structural British/European Standard – Protective Gloves for Structural Firefighters British/European Standard – Protective Clothing Against Liquid Chemicals - Performance Requirements For Clothing With Liquid-tight (type 3) Or Spray-tight (type 4) Connections, Including Items Providing Protection To Parts Of The Body Only (types Pb [3] And Pb [4]) BS EN 374.1: 2003 British/European Standard – Protective Gloves Against Chemicals And Micro-organisms - Part 1: Terminology And Performance Requirements BS EN 943.1: 2002 British/European Standard – Protective Clothing Against Liquid And Gaseous Chemicals, Including Liquid Aerosols And Solid Particles - Part 1: Performance Requirements For Ventilated And Non-ventilated "gastight" (type 1) And "non-gas-tight" (type 2) Chemical Protective Suits BS EN 943.2: 2002 British/European Standard – Protective Clothing Against Liquid And Gaseous Chemicals, Including Liquid Aerosols And Solid Particles - Part 2: Performance Requirements For "gas-tight" (type 1) Chemical Protective Suits For Emergency Teams (et NFPA 1971: 2013 National Fire Protection Association – Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Firefighting NFPA 1994: 2012 National Fire Protection Association – Protective Ensembles for First Responders to CBRN Terrorism Incidents NFPA 1991: 2005 National Fire Protection Association – Vapour-Protective Ensembles for Hazardous Materials Emergencies Superseded by AS/NZS 4503.1:1997; AS/NZS 4503.2:1997; AS/NZS 4503.3:1997 and AS.NZS ISO 6529:2006 (in part) Replaced by BS EN ISO 20345: 2004 Replaced by BS EN 397:2012 +A1:2012 169 Appendix A (cont.) Australian Fire & Rescue Service Standard Compliance for PPE/PPC Summary Type of PPE/PPC Structural Ensemble1 Standard Compliance AS/NZS 4967:2009 AS/NZS 4967:2009, type AS/NZS 4967:2009, when worn with station trousers BS EN 469: 2005 ISO 11613:1999 Bushfire Jacket AS/NZS 4824:2006 ISO 15384:2003 Bushfire Pants AS/NZS 4824:2006 AS/NZS 4967:2009 Station Trousers None AS/NZS 4824: 2006 AS/NZS 4967:2009 NFPA 1975:2009 Station Shirt None AS 2919:1987 Firefighting Gloves AS/NZS 4967:2009 AS/NZS 2161.6: 2014 BS EN 659: 2003+A1:2008 NFPA 1971:2013 EN 388 Firefighting Helmet AS/NZS 4067:2012 NFPA 1971:2013 BS EN 443:2008 AS/NZS 1801:1997, Type BS EN 397:2012 +A1:2012 Flash Hood NFPA 1971:2013 Firefighting Boots AS/NZS 4824:2006 AS 4821:2014 , type AS 4821:2014, type AS 4821:2014, type NFPA 1971:2013 BS EN 345-1:19932 AS/NZ 2210.3:2009 Splash Suits NFPA 1994:2012 AS 3765.1:1990, General purpose Class 33 NFPA 1991:2005 EN 14605:2005 BS EN 369:19934 EN 1511 Gas Suits BS EN 943.1: 2002 BS EN 943.2: 2002 EN 14605: 2005 NFPA 1991: 2005 All Structural Turnout fitted with moisture barriers except for NTFRS Replaced by BS EN ISO 20345: 2004 Superseded by AS/NZS 4503.1:1997; AS/NZS 4503.2:1997; AS/NZS 4503.3:1997 and AS/NZS ISO 6529:2006 (in part) Superseded, withdrawn and replaced by BS EN ISO 6529:2001 170 ... functionality, the design of firefighting Station Wear uniforms is moving away from the traditional, tailored garments of yesteryear and towards highperformance, fire- resistant (FR) work wear in the form of. .. issues relating to the protective and thermal performance of their Station Wear In general, the way in which firefighters interact with their protective clothing is important since it has the ability... available, since a number of existing Station Wear fabrics are missing appropriate fire performance criteria and there appears to be no Australian Standard for them In general, the availability of woven