Environmental Science V.K. Ahluwalia Sunita Malhotra Ane Books India Delhi ♦ Chennai ♦ Kolkata ♦ Bangalore ♦ Lucknow Copyright © 2006 Ane Books India No part of this book may be reproduced in any form whatsoever including those inter alia of: photocopying, / microiilms> photoprints, storage into any retrieval system, q - transmission into any permanent or temporary form, or ‘ otherwise, without the prior written consent of the publisher. £ 2 -O c? 6 This edition is Published by Äne Books India Head Office:4821 Parwana Bhawan, 1st Floor, 24Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002, India, Tel.: 91(011) 23276843-44, Fax: 91(011) 23276863 e-mail: anebooks@vsnl.com, Website: www.anebooks.com Chennai: Avantika Niwas, First Floor, 19 Doraiswamy Road, T. Nagar, Chennai - 600017, Tel.: 91(044) 28141554, 28141209 e-mail: anebooks_tn@touchtelindia.net Kolkata: Flat No. 16A, 220 Vivekanada Road, Manikatalla, Kolkata - 700006 Tel.: 91(033) 23547119 e-mail: anekol@vsnl.net Bangalore: No. 124, 10th Cross, 29th Main 1st Phase, J.P. Nagar, Bangalore - 560078 Tel. : 91(080) 26536772 Lucknow: C-26, Sector-A, Mahanagar, Lucknow - 226006 Mobile - 93352 29971 ISBN Price 81-8052-023-4 Rs. 795.00 Printed at Brijbasi Art Press, Noida Preface Environment is becoming a matter of concern for one and all today. There is a tremendous increase in the developmental activities all around the world and their impact on the environment, in the last few decades, has been very • alarming. A need for conservation of the environment is being raised at all national and international fora. In this scenario, the awareness about various aspects of environment becomes very important. Every citizen needs to be educated about the environmental issues before a meaningful contribution is envisaged. Thus, environmental education has become the prime concern today. Every curriculum, be it the school education or higher education, gives due emphasis on environmental aspects, even a lot is being published in newspapers, journals and magazines. Many governmental and non-governmental organizations are working in the area of environmental education. In India, a separate Ministry, i.e. Ministry of Forests & Environment, is looking after various issues related to the environment. Every contributor or worker in the area of environment has his/her own perception and looks at environment from his/her own point of view. Also, the environmental issues are many in number and complex in nature, so a comprehensive text is needed to give a complete overview of all the aspects of environment. With this objective in mind, this book has been developed to sensitize the users to realize the importance of different aspects of environment and the related current issues. V K Ahluwalia Sunita Malhotra About the Book ‘Environmental Science’ gives an exhaustive coverage to a variety of issues related to the environment. The theme on ‘Energy’ has been chosen as Chapter 1 as it is the prime requirement of developed as well as developing countries. The energy demands have already gone high and would go on increasing in future also. Hence, harnessing of various sources of energy is a focal point for our relationship with the environment. Chapter 2 on ‘Environment’ covers fundamentals of environment, its segments and components as well as the general terminology which is used throughout the book. Chapters 3 to 9 include a detailed discussion on various components of environment including various pollutants, their sources and effects. A due coverage has been given to the effects of these pollutants on human health. The treatment of these pollutants and their control have been dealt at appropriate places. In addition to the pollution of air, land, soil and water, another serious threat to the environment is the ‘hazardous waste’ generated by various human activities. The developmental activities are responsible for the generation of hazardous waste, noise pollution, climate change, and are threatening the biodiversity. In fact, the survival of human beings and various other species is under threat. All these issues have been elaborated in the later half of the book in Chapters 10 to 13. A better control and management is the need of today. Various legal provisions, agreements, conventions and role of agencies involved in the protection of the environment are described in Chapter 14 on ‘Environmental Management’. Chapter 15 includes some case studies which have a direct relevance to the environment and the people. It emphasizes how we need to change our life styles in this age of development and modern technology while maintaining the healthy surroundings. viii Environmental Science Unit 16 is a window to the cleaner future and discusses the role of newer, cleaner, greener techniques of chemistry in making the environment pollution free. It also throws light on the paths and initiatives taken by various segments of the society to protect the environment. The main thrust of this book is on the chemistry of environmental processes and pollutants. In addition to this, a wide coverage on various others aspects of environment is purposely included to make it relevant for a large number of students studying chemistry, environmental sciences, life sciences, engineering and other disciplines at undergraduate and post graduate levels. The interdisciplinary approach makes the book quite informative and interesting for all readers. The contents cover the topics suggested in the syllabii of several universities at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. A special feature of this book is that the environmental issues have been dealt from the global perspective, in general and with the Indian focus, in particular. The data included has been obtained from the original and reliable sources which we gratefully acknowledge. The latest and current information for various environmental parameters have been included. Thus, this book aims to serve the students of all Indian and other universities. Finally, the style is reader friendly and the language used is quite simple. A lot of illustrations have been included to make the coverage more interesting and informative. To facilitate the readers, an index of contents and the glossary have also been incorporated. V. K. Ahluwalia Sunita Malhotra CONTENTS Preface v About the Book v// Chapter -1. Energy and Environment 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Sources of Energy 2 1.3 The Energy Scenario ' 3 1.4 Future Projections of Energy Demand 4 1.5 Utilisation of various Energy Sources 5 1.5.1 Conventional Sources 6 Coal 5 Oil and Natural Gas 8 Oil Shale 9 1.5.2 Non-Conventional Sources 10 Solar Energy 10 Wind Energy 13 Geothermal Energy 16 Hydropower 16 Biomass 17 Biogas 18 Tidal Energy 20 Energy from Waste 21 Hydrogen - The Future Fuel 23 Nuclear Energy 25 Chapter - 2. Environment 29 2.1 Introduction 29 i 2.2 Management of Environment 30 2.3 Components of Environment 31 2.4 Types of Environment 31 2.5 Segments of Environment 32 2.5.1 Atmosphere 32 2.5.2 Hydrosphere 32 2.5.3 Lithosphere 33 X Environmental Science 2.5.4 Biosphere 33 2.5.4.1 Biomes 35 2.6 Environmental Pollution 37 2.6.1 Types of Pollution 37 2.7 Ecosystems 37 2.7.1 Types of Ecosystems 38 2.7.2 Components of Ecosystems 38 2.7.3 Energy in Ecosystems 39 2.8 Various Cycles of Environment 40 2.8.1 Gaseous Cycles 41 2.8.1.1 Water Cycle 41 2.8.1.2 Carbon Cycle 43 2.8.1.3 Nitrogen Cycle 45 2.8.1.4 Oxygen Cycle 48 2.8.2 Sedimentary Cycles 50 2.8.2.1 Sulphur Cycle 50 2.8.2.2 Phosphorus Cycle 51 2.8.2.3 Sodium Cycle 51 2.5.2.4 Potassium Cycle 52 2.8.2.5 Magnesium Cycle 52 2.8.2.6 Iron Cycle 52 Chapter-3. Atmosphere 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Major Regions of Atmosphere 54 3.3 Composition of Atmosphere 57 3.4 Radiation Balance on Earth 58 3.5 Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in Atmosphere 59 Oxygen 59 Nitrogen 60 Nitrous Oxide 61 Carbon Dioxide 61 Ozone 62 Chapter-4. Air Pollution 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Classification of Pollutants 63 4.2.1 Natural Pollutants 63 4.2.2 Primary Pollutants 64 4.2.3 Secondary Pollutants 64 4.3 Major Air Pollutants 65 4.3.1 Oxides of Carbon 65 4.3.1.1 Carbon Monoxide 66 4.3.1.2 Carbon Dioxide 68 4.3.2 Oxides of Nitrogen 69 Contents xi 4.3.3 Oxides of Sulphur 72 4.3.3.1 Sulphur Dioxide (S02) 72 4.3.4 Hydrogen Sulphide 74 4.3.5 Chlorine 75 4.3.6 Ozone 75 4.3.7 Hydrocarbons 76 4.3.8 Particulates 77 4.4 Sources of Air Pollution 80 I 4.4.1 Pollutants from Industry 81 1 4.4.2 Pollution by Petroleum 88 4.4.3 Mining Industries 88 4.4.4 Power Plants 89 4.4.5 Automobiles 90 4.4.6 Agrochemical Based Industries 90 4.4.6.1 Fertilizers 90 4.4.6.2 Pesticides 92 4.4.6.2.1 Insecticides 92 4.4.6.2.2 Fungicides 95 4.4.6.2.3 Herbicides 98 4.5 Effects of Air Pollution 100 4.5.1 Acid Rain 100 4.5.2 Green House Effect 103 4.5.3 Global Warming m 4.5.4 Depletion of Ozone (Ozone Hole) 105 4.5.5 Smog 108 4.6 Control of Air Pollution 111 Chapter - 5. Water 121 5.1 Introduction 121 5.2 Availability and Sources 121 5.2.1 Ground Water 122 5.2.2 Desalination of Sea Water 123 \ 5.2.3 Conservation of Water 123 5 .3 s Characteristics of Water 126 5.4 Water Quality Parameters 127 5.4.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 129 5.4.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 130 5.4.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 131 5.4.4 Alkalinity 132 5.4.5 Most Probable Number (MPN) 132 5.4.6 Total Solids 133 5.4.7 Oxidation State 133 5.4.8 Transparency 133 5.4.9 Silica Content 134 X ll Environmental Science 5.4.10 Hardness 134 5.4.10.1 Units of Hardness of Water 135 5.4.10.2 Water Softening 137 54.11 Dissolved Inorganic Impurities 139 5.4.12 Toxic Metals in Water 139 54.13 Microbial Contaminats in Sewage 143 Chapter - 6. Water Pollution a 151 6.1 Introduction 151 6.2 Types of Water Pollutants 151 6.2.1 Biological Agents 151 6.2.2 Chemical Agents 152 6.2.3 Physical Agents 152 6.3 Types of Water Pollution 153 6.3.1 Ground Water Pollution 153 6.3.2 Surface Water Pollution 154 6.3.3 Sea Water Pollution 156 6.4 Sources of Water Pollution 156 6.4.1 Sewage and Domestic Wastes 157 6.4.2 Industrial Effluents 158 64.2.1 Textile Industry 158 64.2.2 Paper and Pulp Industry 158 6.4.2.3 Leather Tanning Industry 160 6.4.2.4 Agrochemical Industry « 161 6.4.2.5 Petrochemical Industry 162 6.4.2.6 Food Processing Industries 166 6.4.2.7 Dairy Industry 170 64.2.8 Soaps and Detergents 171 64.2.9 Hazardous Wastes 175 6.5 Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health 177 6.5.1 Water as a Carrier for the Transmission of Diseases 177 6.5.2 Chemical Toxicants in Water Affecting Health 178 6.5.3 Water as a Vector Habitat in Disease Transmission in Humans 181 6.5.4 Treatment of Waste Water 181 6.5.5 Eutrophication 182 Chapter-7. Marine Pollution 183 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 Sources of Marine Pollution 183 7.2.1 Hazardous Materials 183 7.2.2 Oil Pollution 183 7.2.2.1 Composition of Crude Petroleum 184 7.2.2.2 Some Major Oil Tanker Accidents 185 1.2.23 Effects of Oil Pollution 186 7.2.24 Control of Oil Pollution in Seas 187 Contents xiii 7.2.3 Pollution by Radioactive Materials 187 7.2.3.1 Types of Radionuclides 187 1.232 Effects of Radionuclides 188 7.3 Thermal Pollution 188 Chapter-8. Soil 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Formation of Soil 191 8.3 Characteristics of Soil k 193 8.4 Soil Profile 193 8.5 Composition of Soil 194 8.5.1 Inorganic Components of Soil 195 8.5.2 Organic Components of Soil 195 8.5.3 Water and Air in Soil 196 8.6 Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Soil 196 8.7 Sources of Essential Elements in Soil 197 Chapter - 9. Soil Pollution 199 9.1 Introduction 199 9.2 Sources of Soil Pollution 199 9.2.1 Industrial Wastes 200 9.2.2 Urban and Domestic Wastes 200 9.2.3 Radioactive Pollutants 201 9.2.4 Agrochemicals • 201 9.2.5 Chemical and Metallic Pollutants 202 9.2.6 Biological Agents 202 9.2.7 Acid Rain 202 9.3 Harmful Effects of Soil Pollutants 203 9.3.1 Effects of Industrial Pollutants 203 9.3.2 Effects of Urban and Domestic Waste Products 203 9.3.3 Effects of Radioactive Pollutants 204 9.3.4 Effects of Agrochemicals 204 9.4 Soil Erosion 205 9.4.1 Causes of Soil Erosion 205 9.4.2 Effects of Soil Erosion 206 9.4.3 Control of Soil Erosion 206 9.5 Reclamation of Soil 206 9.6 Treatment of Soil Pollutants 207 9.7 Control of Soil Pollution 208 9.8 Indicators of Soil Pollution 209 9.8.1 Plants as Indicators of Soil Pollution 209 9.8.2 Organisms as Bio -indicators 210 9.8.3 Micro-organisms as Bio-indicators 210 [...]... National Initiatives 259 259 260 262 267 268 269 270 272 275 Chapter -14 Environmental Management 277 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Introduction Important Environmental Laws and Acts Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Auditing Environmental Management Systems: ISO-14000 Standards Agencies and Institutions involved in the Environmental Management 14.6.1 The Central Pollution Control Board 14.6.2... sink meant for heat storage Passive solar heating uses solar energy to heat buildings directly by trapping 12 Environmental Science the heat directly within the structure of the building followed by its slow release This is similar to greenhouse effect In active solar heating, building are heated indirectly by circulating heated water using pumps and pipes S olar C ollectors Since solar radiation reaching... Fuel Ceils Biomass Coal accounts for a little more than 50% of India’s energy consumption Majority of the energy generated by coal is used by power sector which is followed by heavy industry Petroleum meets 34.4% of the energy demand while natural gas accounts for 6.5% followed by hydroelectricity which is 6.3% N uclear energy has a very sm all share of 1.7% whereas solar, geothermal and wind energy... depletion The energy crisis in 1970s and 14 Environmental Science 1980s also encouraged the use of wind energy on a large scale This has been possible by the use of wind turbines Although, turbines operate on the principle of windmills, they are much sophisticated in design They use propeller type rotors mounted on high towers The amount of wind energy captured by a wind turbine, depends upon the size... because it causes less environmental pollution Thus, it is a more desirable fuel for power plants Coal is considered by many people to be a dirty fuel as there are many environmental impacts associated with mining, processing, transporting and use of coal Coal deposits are exploited mainly by strip mining It involves surface mining in which overlying layer of soil and rock is stripped off to get the coal... fuels represent solar energy which has been captured by the process of photosynthesis and has been stored for million of years The photosynthesis, in present times, is responsible for the biomass available as an energy source Similarly, wind power and hydropower generation is possible by circulation of air and water, respectively which in turn is governed by solar energy The Sun is the ultimate source of... time, there is also a need to keep a watch on the environment The development, of course, should not be at the cost of environmental degradation We should keep in mind the resources available to us and use them optimally and very cautiously for the sustainable development 2 Environmental Science 1.2 Sources of Energy The energy resources can be classified as follows: Energy Resources í~ ~ Conventional... 16.3 Basic Principles of Green Chemistry 16.3.1 Prevention of Waste /by Products 16.3.2 Maximum Incorporation of the Reactiants (Starting Materials and Reagents) in the Final Product 16.3.2.1 Rearrangement Reactions 277 277 284 285 285 291 291 292 293 293 295 295 295 301 311 317 317 318 318 318 318 318 318 320 320 321 XVÍ Environmental Science 16.3.2.2 Addition Reactions 16.3.2.3 Substitution Reactions... can kill birds (iii) There can be interference with radio and television broadcasts by windmills (iv) Windmills can degrade the scenic environment (v) Windmills and wind farms require a large area of land which could have been otherwise required or used for roads, housing or other public buildings 16 Environmental Science c Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is the natural heat available in the interior... mal areas are located with the help of satellite More than 350 hot spring site s have been id e n tifie d by Geological Survey of India They include Tattapani Geothermal fields in C hattisgarh w here 300 KW Fig 1.6 : The Geysers power plant is planned by MNES and Puga Geothermal fields in Ladakh (J&K) In Puga valley, an experimental 1 KW generation project is being used for poultry farming, pashmina . of environment and the related current issues. V K Ahluwalia Sunita Malhotra About the Book Environmental Science gives an exhaustive coverage to a variety of issues related to the environment Environmental Science V. K. Ahluwalia Sunita Malhotra Ane Books India Delhi ♦ Chennai ♦ Kolkata ♦ Bangalore ♦ Lucknow Copyright © 2006 Ane Books India No part of this book may be reproduced. 277 14.3 Environmental Impact Assessment 284 14.4 Environmental Auditing 285 14.5 Environmental Management Systems: ISO-14000 Standards 285 14.6 Agencies and Institutions involved in the Environmental