cryogenic engineering

CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING Second Edition Revised and Expanded © 2005 by Marcel Dekker MARCEL DEKKER NEW YORK CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING Second Edition Revised and Expanded Thomas M. Flynn CRYOCO, Inc. Louisville, Colorado, U.S.A. © 2005 by Marcel Dekker Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage, or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: 0-8247-5367-4 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters Marcel Dekker, 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, U.S.A. tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540 Distribution and Customer Service Marcel Dekker, Cimarron Road, Monticello, New York 12701, U.S.A. tel: 800-228-1160; fax: 845-796-1772 World Wide Web http:==www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more infor- mation, write to Special Sales=Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright # 2005 by Marcel Dekker, All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10987654321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA © 2005 by Marcel Dekker The places I took him! I tried hard to tell Young Conrad Cornelius o’Donald o’Dell A few brand new wonderful words he might spell. I led him around and I tried hard to show There are things beyond Z that most people don’t know. I took him past Zebra. As far as I could. And I think, perhaps, maybe I did him some good On Beyond Zebra, by Dr. Seuss. With permission, Random House Inc. 1745 Broadway, New York, NY. To Rita © 2005 by Marcel Dekker Preface to the Second Edtion Dr. Flynn’s Cryogenic Engineering 2nd Edition was written for a specific audience, namely, the professional engineer or physicist who needs to know some cryogenics to get his or her job done, but not necessarily make a career of it. The 2nd Edition was written to follow closely the cryogenic engineering professional course given annually by Dr. Flynn for 25 years, and accordingly has been tho roughly tested to be very practical. This 2nd (and last) edition includes over 125 new literature citations, and features more than 130 new graphs and tables of data, which may no longer be available elsewhere. v © 2005 by Marcel Dekker Preface to the First Edition This book is for the engineer and scientist who work for a living and who need cryo- genics to get a job done. It is a deskbook, containing hundreds of tables and chart of cryogenic data that are very hard to come by. Examples and sample calculations of how to use the data are included. It is not a textbook. Instead, it assumes that the reader already has basic engineering and science skills. It is practical, using the mea- surement units of trade—SI, U.S. customary, and hybrid systems—just as they are commonly used in practice. It is not a design text, but it does contain many useful design guidelines for selecting the right system, either through procurement or in-house co nstruction. In short, it is the cryogenics book I would like to have on my desk. This book was written to gather into one source much of the technology devel- oped at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory in Boulder, COL, over the last 40 years. In the early 1950s, there was a need for the rapid development of a liquid hydrogen technology, and the major responsibility for the progress of this new engi- neering specialty was entrusted to the Cryogenics Section of the Heat and Power Division of NBS in Washington, D.C. Russell Scott led the work as chief of that sec- tion. Scott soon became the individual immediately in charge of the design and con- struction in Boulder (in March 1952) of the first large-scale liquefier for hydrogen ever built. This was the beginning of the Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory of NBS. Again, in the late 1950s—when the nation was striving to regain world leader- ship in the exploration of space—the NBS Cryogenics Engineering Laboratory, which had by then matured under Scott’s leadership, assumed a pre-eminent role in the solution of problems important to the nation. Scott, having had the foresight to establish a Cryogenic Data Center within the laboratory, was able to provide a focal point for information on many aspects of cryogenic engineering. As a result of all this pioneering in the field of low-temperature engineering, a considerable amount of valuable technology was developed that in the course of nor- mal events might have been lost. Scott recognized this, and the result was his book Cryogenic Engineering, an important first in its field. Its quality, authority, and com- pleteness constitute a lasting tribute to him. This present book is a mere shadow of Scott’s work but is intended once more to up-date and preserve some of the cryogenics developed at NBS. There is only one author’s name on the cover. Nonetheless, this book is a product of the collaboration of hundreds of good men and women of the NBS Cryogenic Engineering Labora- tory. It is written to preserve the technology they developed. vii © 2005 by Marcel Dekker When I was about to graduate as a chemical engineer from Rice University in 1955, I proudly told my department chairman, Dr. Arthur J. (‘‘Pappy’’) Hartsook, that I intended to go to graduate school. Pappy, who knew I was a mediocre student, brightened considerably when I told him I wasn’t going to a ‘‘good’’ school, like MIT, Michigan, or Wisconsin. Instead, I was going to the University of Colorado, where I could learn to ski. Dr. Hartsook was so relieved that he gave me a piece of advice pivotal to my career and my life. I will share it with you now. Pappy said that What I would work on was not nearly as important as who I would work for. I took that advice and chose to work for a new professor at the University of Colorado, Dr. Klaus Timmerhaus. Klaus had only been there a year or two; the National Science Foundation and grantsmanship had yet to be invented. I had a teaching assistantship (paper grader) at $150 per month, before taxes. It was the most money I had ever had. To help me get some money for our planned research, Klaus suggested that I work at the Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. And so I did, for the next 28 years. For many years, it was the best of times, a truly nurturing environment for the young engineer scien- tist, because of the people who either worked there or visited there. I wish to thank Klaus Timmerhaus, Russell Scott, Bascom Birmingham, Dud- ley Chelton, Bob Powell, John Dean, Ray Smith, Jo Mandenhall, Jim Draper, Dick Bjorklund, Bill Bulla, M. D. Bunch, Bob Goodwin, Lloyd Weber, Ray Radebaugh, Peter Storch, Larry Sparks, Bob McCarty, Vic Johnson, Bill Little, Bob Paugh, Bob Jacobs, Mike McClintock, Al Schmidt, Pete Vander Arend, Dan Weitzel, Wally Ziegler, John Gardner, Bob Mohling, Bob Neff, Sc ott Willen, Will Gully, Art Kid- nay, Graham Walker, Ralph Surloch, Albert Schuler, Sam Collins, Bill Gifford, Peter Gifford, Ralph Longsworth, Ed Hammel, and Fred Edeskuty. Special thanks are due to Chris Davis and Janet Diaz for manuscript preparation and technical edit- ing. I mention all these names not so much to give credit as to spread the blame. I apologize in advance to those I have forgotten to mention. viii Preface © 2005 by Marcel Dekker Contents Preface to the Second Edition . . . . v Preface to the First Edition . . . . vii 1. Cryogenic Engineering Connections . . . 1 1. Forewarned . . . . 1 2. The Entrepreneurs . . . . 1 3. The Butchers . . . . 4 4. The Brewers . . . . 5 5. The Industrialists . . . . 6 6. The Scientists . . . . 9 7. The Engineers . . . . 12 8. The Rocket Scientists . . . . 15 9. The Physicists and Superconductivity . . . . 16 10. Science Marches On . . . . 21 2. Basic Principles . . 23 1. Introduction . . . . 23 2. Thermodynamics . . . . 27 3. Heat Transfer . . . . 55 4. Momentum Transfer . . . . 68 5. Heat Leak and Pressure Drop in Cryogenic Transfer Lines . . . . 69 6. Cooldown . . . . 73 7. Summary . . . . 76 3. Cryogenic Fluids . . 77 1. PVT Behavior of a Pure Substance . . . . 77 2. Temperature–Enthalpy and Temperature–Entropy Diagrams of Pure Substances . . . . 81 3. Properties and Uses of Cryogenic Fluids . . . . 83 4. Mechanical Properties of Solids . . . . . 257 1. Introduction . . . . 257 2. Strength, Ductility, and Elastic Modulus . . . . 257 3. The Structure of Solids . . . . 259 4. Ductility . . . . 261 ix © 2005 by Marcel Dekker 5. Low-Temperature Strength of Solids . . . . 268 6. Elastic Constants . . . . 274 7. Modulus of Elasticity . . . . 279 8. Fatigue Strength . . . . 282 9. Mechanical Properties Summary . . . . 284 10. Design Considerations . . . . 285 11. Material Selection Criteria for Cryogenic Tanks . . . . 291 5. Transport Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . 301 1. Thermal Properties . . . . 301 2. Emissivity, Absorptivity, and Reflectivity . . . . 327 3. Electrical Properties . . . . 332 4. Superconductivity . . . . 339 6. Refrigeration and Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . 359 1. Introduction . . . . 359 2. Refrigeration and Liquefaction . . . . 359 3. Recuperative Cycles . . . . 367 4. Liquefaction of Gases . . . . 369 5. Refrigerator Efficiency . . . . 377 6. Useful Thermodynamic Relations . . . . 380 7. Refrigeration and Liquefaction Methods . . . . 381 8. Large Systems . . . . 401 9. Regenerative Cycles . . . . 401 10. Magnetocaloric Refrigeration . . . . 427 11. Ultra Low-Temperature Refrigerators . . . . 433 12. Very Small Coolers . . . . 438 13. Superconductors and Their Cooling Requirements . . . . 439 14. Cryocoolers . . . . 441 15. Conclusion . . . . 442 7. Insulation 445 1. Introduction . . . . 445 2. Heat Transfer . . . . 446 3. Vacuum Insulation . . . . 448 4. Evacuated Porous Insulation . . . . 468 5. Gas-Filled Powders and Fibrous Materials . . . . 475 6. Solid Foams . . . . 477 7. Multilayer Insulation . . . . 483 8. Vapor Barriers . . . . 510 9. Protective Enclosures . . . . 513 10. Liquid and Vapor Shields . . . . 514 11. Composite Insulations . . . . 518 12. Other Materials . . . . 525 13. Placement of Insulation Systems . . . . 525 14. Adhesives . . . . 526 x Preface © 2005 by Marcel Dekker 15. Comparison of Insulations . . . . 528 16. Summary . . . . 535 8. Cryogenic Instrumentation . . 537 1. Introduction . . . . 537 2. Strain . . . . 539 3. Displacement and Position . . . . 543 4. Pressure . . . . 545 5. Flow . . . . 554 6. Liquid Level . . . . 579 7. Density . . . . 587 8. Temperature . . . . 594 9. Cryogenic Equipment and Cryogenic Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . 633 1. Introduction . . . . 633 2. Compressors . . . . 638 3. Pumps . . . . 644 4. Expansion Engines . . . . 652 5. Valves . . . . 665 6. Heat Exchangers . . . . 671 7. Storage . . . . 696 8. Transfer of Liquefied Gases . . . . 714 10. Natural Gas Processing and Liquefied Natural Gas . 727 1. Introduction . . . . 727 2. Purification . . . . 730 3. Hydrocarbon Recovery . . . . 742 4. Cryogenic Upgrading of Natural Gas . . . . 745 5. Helium Extraction, Nitrogen Rejection, and Hydrocarbon Recovery . . . . 748 6. Liquefaction of Natural Gas . . . . 748 11. Safety with Cryogenic Systems . . . . . 773 1. Introduction . . . . 773 2. Physiological Hazards . . . . 773 3. Suitability of Materials and Construction Techniques . . . . 777 4. Explosions and Flammability . . . . 788 5. Excessive Pressure Gas . . . . 806 6. Special Considerations for Hydrogen . . . . 811 7. Special Considerations for Oxygen . . . . 837 8. General Safety Principles . . . . 865 9. Safety Checklist . . . . 869 References . 873 Preface xi © 2005 by Marcel Dekker [...]... 090704 Cryogenic Engineering Connections 15 The first buildings for the National Bureau of Standards Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory were completed in 1952 This laboratory was established to provide engineering data on materials of construction, to produce large quantities of liquid hydrogen for the Atomic Energy Commission, and to develop improved processes and equipment for the fast-growing cryogenic. .. Standards Cryogenic Engineering laboratory built in Boulder, Colorado, including the first large-scale liquid hydrogen plant in the USA First Cryogenic Engineering Conference held by NBS at its Boulder Laboratories BCS theory of superconductivity proposed Atlas ICBM tested, firs use in the USA of liquid oxygen-RP1 propellant Lee and Yang receive Nobel for upsetting the theory of parity Multilayer cryogenic. .. changes the economics and practicability of engineering applications of superconductivity in a dramatic way Refrigeration costs with liquid nitrogen are 100 times cheaper than those with liquid helium, and only simple one-stage © 2005 by Marcel Dekker 5367-4 Flynn Ch01 R2 090704 Cryogenic Engineering Connections 19 Table 1.2 Notable Events in the History of Cryogenics 1848 1857 1866 1867 1869 1873 1875... Annual conferences in cryogenic engineering have been sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards (sometimes sponsored jointly with various universities) from 1954 (with the exception of 1955) to 1973 At the 1972 conference at Georgia Tech in Atlanta, the Conference Board voted to change to a biennial schedule alternating with the Applied Superconductivity Conference The NBS Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory... Dewar never patented his silvered vacuum flask and therefore never benefited financially from his invention The word ‘‘Cryogenics’’ was slow in coming The word cryogenics is a product of the 20th Century and comes from the Greek—kroB—frost and—ginomai—to produce, engender Etymologically, cryogenics means the science and art of producing cold and this was how Kamerlingh Onnes first used the word in 1894... Many Nobel laureates received their honors either because of work directly in cryogenics, or because of work in which cryogenic fluids were indispensable refrigerants Table 1.1 provides an imposing list of such Nobel Prize winners Two examples from this list of Nobel laureates are considered to illustrate the application of cryogenics to education and basic research The first example involves Donald Glaser... equally well retain heat as cold Dewar’s vessel became known in scientific circles as the Dewar flask; with it, he was able to use already liquid gases © 2005 by Marcel Dekker 5367-4 Flynn Ch01 R2 090704 Cryogenic Engineering Connections 11 to enhance the chill during the liquefaction of gases whose liquefaction temperature was lower than that of the surrounding liquid In this way, in 1891, he succeeded for...5367-4 Flynn Ch01 R2 090704 1 Cryogenic Engineering Connections 1 FOREWARNED In his masterpiece, Civilization, Sir Kenneth Clark writes not a foreword but rather a fore-warned Clark writes to the effect that he does not know if his recounting... was to break away from the cascade system of cooling and to rely entirely on Joule–Thomson cooling together with efficient heat exchanger designs © 2005 by Marcel Dekker 5367-4 Flynn Ch01 R2 090704 Cryogenic Engineering Connections 13 Figure 1.7 Linde two-stage compressor and 3 L=hr air liquefier (1895) Linde used concentric tubes of high-pressure line enclosed by a low-pressure return, the two being wound... coined the word ‘‘surplusage.’’ He was of course wrong In 1902, Tripler was declared bankrupt, and Wall Street and the US lost interest in commercial applications of cryogenics for many years to come, although important cryophysics and cryo -engineering research continued in US universities In 1902 Georges Claude, a French engineer, developed a practical system for air liquefaction in which a large portion . CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING Second Edition Revised and Expanded © 2005 by Marcel Dekker MARCEL DEKKER NEW YORK CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING Second Edition Revised and. beginning of the Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory of NBS. Again, in the late 1950s—when the nation was striving to regain world leader- ship in the exploration of space—the NBS Cryogenics Engineering. the cryogenics book I would like to have on my desk. This book was written to gather into one source much of the technology devel- oped at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Cryogenic Engineering