THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE
THE VALUES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS PROFESSIONALS: AN INVESTIGATION INTO BARRIERS PREVENTING
INTEGRATION OF IS WITH THE ORGANIZATION
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
WARREN LEE DICKSON, III Norman, Oklahoma
1994
Trang 3AN INVESTIGATION INTO BARRIERS PREVENTING INTEGRATION OF IS WITH THE ORGANIZATION
A DISSERTATION
APPROVED FOR THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
LEE Leon Price
chi Kop£
va W =
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Trang 4My earliest memories of curiosity about how the world works are memories of my father Dad woulda explain to me the basic science of whatever he was working on around the house I got lessons on automobiles, electrical circuitry, furnaces, plumbing, carpentry, cooking, television repair and a wide variety of other systems and systems sciences Between Dad‘s early lessons and this current project there have been a great number of people who have
contributed directly and indirectly to my progress aS a student of how things work and to my progress as a human being
Donna has been the beacon and the strength of this undertaking As my wife, she is the love of my life and my one true soul mate As the mother of my sons, she fills me with awe As a person and as a professional she has my greatest respect and admiration It is now for us to begin the life I promised her "after,"
Our sons, Michael and James, have taught me lessons I did not know were there to be learned One of the most important is saying "I love you." They are very good at it in lots of ways I’m still Studying Their understanding
Trang 5angels
My parents, Hap and Vergie, have given me many opportunities to discover my own path, given me tons of encouragement and have always been there to help Dad‘s lessons continue to this day and I am immensely grateful for his common sense, humor and care
On the other side of our family Donna’s parents, Maxine and Kenneth, have been a great source of care and support This would not have been possible without them
Of the many educators and mentors I have encountered over the years, the first that showed me science, art, joy, discipline and humor all working together was Don Wittig Mr Wittig was band and music instructor during my
elementary and high school years Before Don, my world was bounded by my concrete mind After Don, I ama self-
conscious, symbol-using abstract thinker who can function in the modern world
For ten years, I worked in the Center for Economic and Management Research (CEMR) at the University of Oklahoma
College of Business Administration The staff, faculty and
students I encountered during that time have had an immense impact on my view of the world Dr Neil Dikeman taught me
about creating an atmosphere of family in the workplace In
Trang 6me understand the true function of any information system Marj Earley instilled in me the need for professional accuracy and discipline based in pride and in caring for others She also allowed me to explore new methods and technologies that I would never have experienced otherwise
During my time at CEMR and through to this day, Dr Bill England has been mentor, advisor and friend As a staffer at CEMR, I was always included in his research
projects I was asked to sit in on planning meetings, given responsibilities, and invited to participate fully in the experience Bill’s insight into people and organizations has been a source of inspiration for me He, more than anyone else is responsible for shaping my academic
aspirations and goals
Marilyn Cain, Deanna Eads, Brian Hickey, Julia Rojas, Alice Watkins and Pat Wickham have all given freely of their
expertise, assistance and advice As the core of the CEMR
family, their support was crucial to this project
For four years, I was a member of the faculty in the School of Business at Ithaca College I am grateful to the administration, faculty, staff and students at Ithaca for their support of me and this project in the toughest times
The individuals serving as advisors to this project have been influential as faculty members and mentors as well
Trang 7to share his experiences and contacts in organizations He has not known me long but has given excellent guidance Andy expended great effort on the necessary details of the project details that would have been in chaos without his help
Dr Al Schwarzkopf was responsible for my introduction to the IS literature His scholarship and discipline serve as an ideal to which I can aspire His encouragement and his insistance on digging out the positive and the practical in the study results have been invaluable
A very practical scholar, Dr Russell Driver has also showed me the real inventiveness of research the
inspiration-driven, idea-creation side It was he who first showed me the link between IS and Organizational
Communication, a link that has become my main scholarly interest
Dr R Leon Price gave me my first teaching job, my first experience with scholarly publication, my first
introduction to MIS and an appreciation for what goes on in the real world of organizations For years now, as chairman of the advising committee, Leon has championed my cause around the country Without him at the helm this one was sure to have run aground He has my deepest gratitude
Trang 8artist, humorist, scholar, teacher and friend demonstrated to me every day I knew him that one can be an academic and a real person at the same time He let me see the world of academia through his well-traveled eyes and helped me begin to find my place there When I was unsure of my abilities, Bob encouraged me to take on assignments he knew would help me grow and he constantly sought opportunities for me to practice my craft Bob has been gone for over a year but his lessons and most of all his friendship will be with me always
All of these folks and many others have given me their best support If my efforts now or in the future result in any good it will be because my self stood out of the way and let the combined experience, inspiration and love of these
people show through If I make mistakes and experience
failures it will be because I stood in the way and did not properly use all that I have been given
Trang 9Section/Chapter Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .-+ v
LIST OF TABLES ., xWiii
LIST OF FIGURES 2.4 Xxi
ABSTRACT 1 2 1 1 ee ee ew ew ee) OKKLL
CHAPTER 1: THE IDEAL OF INTEGRATION AND THE REALITY OF
DIFFERENTIATION Introduction
The Ideal Of Complete Integration The Reality Of Differentiation
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UW
t2
FF
Ff
Purpose of the Study
A History Of The Cultural Gap:
"Engineer" And “Business Man" 9 The Information Systems Decision Maker 13
Outline Of The Study #15
Trang 10CHAPTER 2: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IS AND NON-IS PERSONNEL AS BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION 17 “Managers* and “Scientists” in
Management Science 18
“Users” and “Designers": The Problem
Plagues a New Discipline 23
Individual differences I:
Cognition 24
Individual Differences II:
Motivation 27
Motivation and Values 30
Individual Differences III: Skills 33
Communication Studies: Bridging the
Gap www ww we ew we ee ew) BT
Social Differences 47
IS culture and “Systems
Rationalism." 49
IS: Based in investigation 51
IS professionals as Systems
Rationalists 53
The Effect of Values on Individual
Trang 11The General Model Culture 2.242.- Values 2.8 Decision Premises Decision Action 2.2 The IS Professional’s Effect On
Progress Toward The Ideal of Integration IS Professionals’ Values and
Actions e8
Conclusion: Values Systems of IS Professionals
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH QUESTIONS CONCERNING VALUES HELD BY IS
PROFESSIONALS Introduction The Measurement of Values
Classes of Values Modes of Valuation and Value
Orientations
Behavioral Relevance of Values
Trang 12Research Questions ee eee ew ew ew ew) TG Value Profiles of IS Professionals 77
Technology 80
Benefits of Computers 80
Efficiency 80
Narrow Focus 80
Assumed Consensus on Goals 80
Synoptic views 81
Values of IS Professionals and Integration With the Organization 81
Social Need 4 = 83
Profession versus Organization 83 Organizational skills 83
Preferences for change 84
Research Questions: Summary and Conclusions 84
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 86
Gathering Data on IS Professional Values 87 The Research Instrument 87
Operational Definitions 88
Trang 13Design of Tests Concerning the Research Questions -
The Sample 4 The Analyses
Potential Influences on the Value Systems Of Information Systems
Professionals
Gender Organization Level
Functional Area Affiliation Age and Career Stage National Culture
Education
Marital status and family status Department Characteristics
Research Methodology: Summary
CHAPTER 5: DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4
The Initial Study
Data Collection and Study
Trang 14Analysis of the Initial Study Data 111 Characteristics of the Initial Study
Sample 4 114
Initial Study Tests Concerning Research Questions 114
RQ,: Will IS Professionals Fit the Profile of “Systems Rationalists?" 114
RQ,: “Are IS Professionals Less Likely to Hold Operative Values Consistent with Integration than are Non-IS Professionals?" 116
Further Exploration of IS/Marketing Differences: Sampling Anomalies 117 Modifications Following The Initial Study 0 eee eee 120 Instrument Length and Difficulty 121 Breadth of the Study 122
The Single-Firm Study 123
The Host Firm 123
Data Collection 4124
Survey Response 125
Trang 15Data Analysis 126 Characteristics of the Single-Firm
Sample 126 Tests Concerning Research Questions 131
RQ;: Will IS Professionals Fit the Profile of "Systems
Rationalists? 131
RQ;: “Are IS Professionals Less
Likely to Hold Operative Values Consistent with
Integration than are Non-IS
Professionals?" 136
Power Analysis 139
Higher-Order Factorial Models 142 The MANAGER main effect 145 The DEPT main effect 146
Interaction effects 147
Multivariate Tests of Single-Firm
Trang 16CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY,
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE Introduction:
Values
Findings Concerning Research Questions Methodological Concerns
Environmentally Specific Values CONCLUSIONS AND
Data Collection
Lack of Adequate Controls Contributions of This Study
Suggestions for Future Research
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: INTRODUCTORY LETTERS TO POTENTIAL FACILITATORS AND TO POTENTIAL RESPONDENTS ORIGINAL LETTER TO NEW YORK
COMPANIES
LETTER TO ORGANIZATIONS WITH PERSONAL CONTACTS
LETTERS TO POTENTIAL RESPONDENTS IN ORGANIZATIONS WITH PERSONAL CONTACTS
xvi
Review of the Logic of
Trang 17TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C: APPENDIX D: PERSONAL VALUES QUESTIONNAIRE (ORIGINAL FORMAT) 207 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL SURVEY ITEMS DERIVED FROM
THE IS LITERATURE 215
PERSONAL VALUES
QUESTIONNAIRE IN REDUCED
FINAL FORM 221
Trang 18Table TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE 3-1: 3-2: 3-3: 4-1: 4-2: 4-3: Page
SIX STAGES OF DATA PROCESSING
GROWTH 4
: DEVELOPMENT PROCESS PROBLEMS 6
FOUR APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT-
SCIENTIST INTERACTION 19
VALUE CLASSES AND BEHAVIORAL
RELEVANCE 72
MODES OF VALUATION AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS 74
BEHAVIORAL RELEVANCE OF VALUES
BY ORIENTATION 76
CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL
DEFINITIONS CONCERNING RQ, 91
VALUES FROM THE PVQ THAT HAVE
INTEGRATION CONNOTATIONS 94
CONTROLLING FOR POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS IN THE EXPLORATION OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS 97
DATA TYPES IN THE PVQ 101 SURVEY RESPONSE RATE SINGLE-
FIRM STUDY 126
Trang 19TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE 5-2: 5-3: 5-4: 5-5: 5-6: 5-7: 5-8: 5-9: 5-10: RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS BY DEPARTMENT SINGLE-FIRM STUDY MARITAL STATUS BY DEPARTMENT SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
FAMILY STATUS BY DEPARTMENT SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
PRIMARY VALUE ORIENTATION BY DEPARTMENT SINGLE-FIRM STUDY IS FIT TO THE SYSTEMS
RATIONALIST PROFILE IN THE SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
MARKETING FIT TO THE SYSTEMS RATIONALIST PROFILE IN THE SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
SYSRAT SCORES BY DEPARTMENT SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
INTEGRATION-RELATED VALUES: IS AND MARKETING PERCENT OPERATIVE IN THE SINGLE-FIRM STUDY
SCALES AND COUNTS BY
Trang 21Figure FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE FIGURE 2-2: 2-3: 2-4: 6-1: Page
: FRAMES IN THE COMMUNICATION
PROCESS 46 THE ROLE OF DESIGNER VALUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT 621
EFFECT OF VALUES ON INDIVIDUAL
ACTIONS «64
KEY ISSUES IN INFORMATION
SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT 68
: FORMAT OF THE PERSONAL VALUES
QUESTIONNAIRE 87
REVIEW OF VALUES IN DECISION
MAKING 162
Trang 22Integration of Information Systems (IS) with the
organization is considered one of the most important issues in current Information Systems practice and research The ideal state of Information Systems integration in an
organization is one in which “the applications portfolio ‘mirrors’ the organization and the information flows in the company“ (Nolan, 1979, p 120)
Researchers and practitioners have identified a variety of problems that prevent IS professionals and Non-IS
professionals from joint realization of this ideal
Individual differences, social differences and interaction (communication) difficulties relating to difficulties in
integration have been explored This project focuses on and
attempts to identify values differences between Information Systems professionals and Non-IS professionals that may be blocking integration efforts
Kling’s (1980) characterization of the Systems
Rationalist may explain the observed differences and account for the general failure to achieve the integration ideal Systems Rationalists focus on the positive aspects of Information Technology (IT), are preoccupied with new capabilities of technology, tend to ignore goal
Trang 23and hold efficiency as an important value, focussing on the internal, task-oriented environment
The characterization of Systems Rationalists includes preferred end-states of existence and preferred modes of conduct Such preferences are called "values" (Rokeach, 1973)
Values are a product of culture and in turn affect choices and decisions made by culture members These
decisions impact the environment through actions The
reaction of the environment and members’ assessments of the environmental impact produce feedback information which
affects decision making, values and culture Different
cultures may well hold different values and different environments shape cultures differently
This study measured values using a modified version of the Personal Values Questionnaire (England, 1975) in order to see if the values of IS professionals fit the profile of the systems rationalist (Kling, 1980) and if values
differences between IS and Non-IS professionals differ in areas that may make integration and cooperation difficult
Respondents from IS and Marketing departments of a major telecommunications firm were studied by paper-and-pencil
questionnaire Contrary to researcher expectations, no
Trang 24related to integration
Some potential explanations for the results include the lack of an IS-specific context for subjects, the single- method data collection strategy, and the lack of adequate control over potential intervening variables such as gender, age, education and so on
Through exploration of the values data, this study
contributes to organizational science in four ways: 1) The
values of IS personnel associated with change are somewhat Clarified; 2) A beginning is made in identifying values that may be important along IS career paths; 3) The model of values and decision making has been shown, under the
conditions of this study, to have more pronounced effects in the feedback loop than in the original cultural influences; 4) Potential strategies to anticipate organizational
assimilation are suggested from the observation of students and professionals in the same discipline
Trang 25AN INVESTIGATION INTO BARRIERS PREVENTING INTEGRATION OF IS WITH THE ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER 1
THE IDEAL OF INTEGRATION AND THE REALITY OF DIFFERENTIATION
Introduction
Integration of Information Systems (IS) with the
organization is considered one of the most important issues in current Information Systems (IS) practice and research
(Brancheau & Wetherbe, 1987; Niederman, Brancheau, &
Wetherbe, 1991) Integration has, however been difficult to
achieve (Lyytinen, 1987) While a number of potential
Trang 26This investigation first will examine past research into integration problems and then focus on enhancing current knowledge of values-based integration obstacles
The Ideal Of Complete Integration
Information Systems integration is “a goal oriented process of setting up linkages between the elements of two or more information systems" (Solotruk & Kristofic, 1980, p 208) While the context of the Solotruk & Kristofic essay involved hardware linkages, their definition also applies when one Information System is technical/physical and the other is the structure and process of organizational
interaction
IS integration in organizations, is concerned with setting up the linkages between computer-based systems and the systems and/or procedures necessary to fulfill the goals
of the organization This usually means joining Information
Technology (IT) into human-based information processing systems The goal of such integration is to provide IT support for personal, group and organizational processes
Some perspectives on Information Systems integration are:
A The New Organizational Forms perspective concerns
Trang 27(for example, Drucker, 1988; Child, 1987; Miles & Snow, 1986) ;
B The Competitive Advantage perspective concerns the integration of IS and the strategic planning process (for example, Mason, 1984; Cash, McFarlan & McKenney, 1988; Wiseman, 1985; Porter & Millar, 1985);
om The Systems Development perspective concerns the
process by which information systems are instigated in organizations and by which Information Technology (IT) is integrated into the work processes of individuals, groups and enterprises (for example, Bostrom, 1989; Guinan & Bostrom, 1986; Boland, 1978); and
D The Communication perspective concerns the
integration of IT into human communication systems, both formal and informal (for example, Rice, 1984; Fulk,
Steinfield, Schmitz & Power, 1987; Winograd & Flores, 1987; Lyytinen, 1985; Goldkuhl & Lyytinen, 1982; Poole and DeSanctis, 1990, 1992; Markus, 1987; Contractor & Seibold, 1993)
This list is not exhaustive nor are the categories mutually exclusive, it does, however, reflect the importance of, and widespread interest in, IS integration
Trang 28organization gains more experience with IT is summarized in Table 1-1
TABLE 1-1
SIX STAGES OF DATA PROCESSING GROWTH Adapted from Nolan (1979, p 117)
information flows
STAGE & APPLICATIONS USER
NAME AWARENESS
Lễ
1 Initiation Functional, cost "Hands off"
reduction
2 Contagion Proliferation Superficially
enthusiastic
3 Control Upgrade Arbitrarily held
documentation, accountable
restructuring existing
applications
4 Integration Retrofitting Accountability
existing learning
applications using database technology
5 Data Organization Effectively
Administration | integration of accountable
applications
6 Maturity Application Acceptance of
integration joint user and
"mirroring" data processing
accountability
For Nolan, ascendance to Stage 6 involves the realization of virtually all categories of integration:
During stage 6, the applications portfolio is complet- ed, and its structure ‘mirrors’ the organization and the information flows in the company
p 120) (Nolan, 1979,
Trang 29Of course, Nolan described an ideal state of IS
integration The implication of such “mirroring” is that
those involved in developing the applications in the portfolio have been successful at analyzing and
understanding the totality of information usage by the
organization Moreover, it implies that the IS personnel
have a good knowledge of the business (Bartol & Martin, 1982)
The Reality Of Differentiation
Our pessimistic prediction is that man will not tend to use MIS effectively because of the norms of the existing world and the way he has programmed himself to be more
incompetent than competent in dealing with people (Argyris, 1971, p B281)
The IS development process serves to build the "mirrors"
through which the organization is reflected The
applications portfolio supplies a good reflection of the organization only to the extent that the development process is successful at keeping biases, inaccuracies and other distortions to a minimum This is an immense task since the development process is subject to distortion from a variety of sources A summary of potential sources can be found in Lyytinen (1987) categorized under “IS Development Process
Trang 30These problems can be divided into two broad categories: 1) problems concerning interpretation of information needs and 2) problems of implementing the IS once needs have been interpreted The areas of Technology and Economy and the problem of quality control in the Process Features area are
implementation and resource use issues Those problems that are most likely to cause bias and distortion in the
interpretation of the organization are those listed under Goals, Process features (the issues of hegemony and
communication), View of organization and Self-image
TABLE 1-2
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS PROBLEMS Adapted from Lyytinen (1987, page 9)
IS Problem Class | Description |
Goals Goals are ambiguous, too narrow, and conflicting
Technology Technology restricts choices, high
risk of change
Economy Poor quality of calculations; lack
of foundations
Process Features Analysts dominate; poor
communication; lack of quality
control
View of Neglect of behavioral and organization organizational issues
Trang 31
All of the problems concerning interpretation of information needs have some roots in the differentiation between IS professionals and the rest of the organization Alleviation of these problems requires IS to understand and participate fully in the world of the organization
An early and influential essay in the IS discipline,
Ackoff's “Management Misinformation Systems" (Ackoff, 1967), identified “Five assumptions commonly made by designers of management information systems" (Ackoff, 1967, from the abstract, p B147) about the needs, wants and basic environments of the user-manager These assumptions are
“common and erroneous underlying the design of most MIS’s" (Ackoff£, 1967, p B147)
Ackoff urged collaboration and communication with user- managers in order to overcome these deficiencies The concept of such collaboration and communication has strong support on both sides In practice, however, communication between IS professionals and users during the development process has been found to be seriously deficient Asa
result, a number of structure and process improvements have been suggested (Guinan & Bostrom, 1986; Salaway, 1987;
Trang 32that the problem runs deep and so Guinan and Bostrom have concluded that
the CIS literature advocates vague ideals, such as ‘participation,’ ‘levels of trust,’ and ‘mutual
understanding,’ but empirical research has not been done to determine how one might achieve these ideals
(Guinan & Bostrom, 1986, p 5)
Purpose of the Stud
The purpose of this study is to contribute empirical research toward achieving some of the "vague ideals"
referred to in the previous paragraph In particular, the study tries to identify values-based differences between IS personnel and others in the organization that prevent the realization of the integration ideal In particular, this study will investigate the following questions:
* Is there a subculture of IS, based in a value system different from the value systems of non-IS professionals, that crosses institutional boundaries?
¢ Can value differences be identified that prevail between the IS subculture and the subcultures of other
business professionals and that serve as barriers between
the ideal and the reality?
This study will focus on Information Systems personnel It compares their value systems with those of non-IS
Trang 33understood, decision making concerning IS professionals and their interactions with others will be based on more
accurate and more complete premises and assumptions
A History Of The Cultural Gap: “Engineer” And “Business Man"
DP people often don’t understand the business
implications They are mainly concerned with getting the system up in the morning and closing everything down for the night (Manager Barbara Gearhart as quoted in Dymond, 1990, p 26)
The good designer is able to absorb the problem and react to its solution firsthand In many cases this is in direct contradiction to the user’s stated requirements, which are often amateurish second guesses at what he
[sic] perceives to be a valid solution to his {sic] need (Edwards, 1985, p 106)
These two characterizations illustrate current beliefs from both the user perspective and the systems perspective The purpose of this section is to trace the history of these beliefs The views presented in the two passages illustrate a marked "us versus them“ posture taken by practitioners in both user departments and systems departments of
Trang 34differences between “technical" professionals and non-
“technical” professionals It is helpful to review some of the writings on both the general and specific case
Before there were IS or MIS or EDP or even MS or OR, and at a time when “Scientific Management" was at its peak, there was concern about the different orientations of
technical departments and their non-technical counterparts In the first issue of the Harvard Business Review in 1922, John Gurney Callan eloquently described a change in
expectations about new technical accomplishments In an argument which foreshadows Nolan’s "mirroring" concept, he advised that such innovation ("engineering accomplishments" to Callan) should be perceived less as novelty and more as an ongoing part of the flow of productive activity in the organization This early statement mentions the need to integrate technical departments into the organization
Callan based his argument upon economic realities that will not tolerate whimsical experimentation:
{in earlier days] there was nothing imperative to force upon engineer or business man anything like a complete or conscious policy as to the uses to be made of the new instrumentalities, although in some degree the mere possession of the new engineering instruments implied their use we had the fiddle and the bow there was nothing left to do but fiddle, and the neighbors were not critical Now the orchestra is tuning up in an expensive hall, the show is
advertised, and bad fiddling is less a matter of purely personal concern, especially with an audience
Trang 35Having thus expressed the importance of managing
technical innovation, of bringing it down to earth, Callan went on to reveal difficulties associated with such
management He gave his perceptions of some differences between the technical ("Engineering") problems and the
"Business" problems facing organizations The first distinction Callan drew is that of the familiar from the strange Business activities, he said, are “analogous to common experience," (Callan, 1922, p 83) while the
activities of engineers are “exotic, foreign to average experience, arbitrary and innumerable," (ibid.)
For the past thirty-five years or so, IS professionals have been finding that this view of technical and business problems has one major flaw It assumes that everyone can relate to business activities in organizations in such a way that the analysis and understanding of those activities is simply a matter of bringing into play certain analogies "to common experience.* Callan differentiated between
"business" and “technical" problems by using “technical" in the sense of "having to do with the practical, industrial, or mechanical arts of the applied sciences" (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1960) The dictionary gives another meaning of "technical," however, that is important here:
Trang 36language, procedures, knowledge and skills of any work group may be considered technical to the extent that they are
specialized and peculiar to that work environment In
short, Callan’s writing was definitely influenced by his own experience and only against that background can the detailed activities of all individuals in “non-technical” roles in organizations be considered so obvious
The “technical* nature of "non-technical" roles impresses itself on anyone trying to learn a new role in an
organization It becomes clear that the “non-technical" mind is simply a mind that has yet to be thoroughly
introduced to the component activities being studied In general, Callan may be correct that *business" functions in an organization are roughly familiar to anyone who “has
Trang 37surrounding activity as commonplace as payroll or accounts payable may seem “exotic, foreign to average experience, arbitrary and innumerable" (Callan, 1922, p 83)
Obviously, the cognitive preferences, training and experience of an individual determine which is the more
“foreign” environment
As for complexity, Callan himself compared the
(relatively) definite objectives associated with technical problems to the (relatively) infinite scope of the business
"machinery." The fundamental concepts of such “machinery" involve not only the basic ideas behind the disciplines of personnel administration, accounting and so on, but also work environments, world-views, values and beliefs In other words the fundamental concepts of a discipline are an integral part of the culture of the people who practice it
(and vice-versa) “The business man is primarily dealing with men and the engineer with things and herein lies the greatest difference of all" (Callan, 1922, p 84)
The Information Systems Decision Maker
Trang 38place, how work and resources will be divided in order to accomplish those plans and when and how adjustments or
corrections will be made In making decisions, decision
makers begin with their “background” in all areas of life (Winograd and Flores, 1987; Simon, 1976; Tompkins & Cheney,
1985) This background constitutes a set of premises on
which decisions will be based These premises are of two types: 1) assumed facts and 2) values (Simon, 1976) where a
"value" is
an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence (Rokeach, 1973, p 5)
Then,
Given a complete set of value and factual premises there is only one decision which is consistent with rationality
(Simon, 1976, p 223)
Or, as Tompkins and Cheney (1985) generalized:
aS we Find more typically, a decision maker is
directed toward a range of decisions that are consistent with the premises deemed relevant to the particular Situation (p 186)
The value systems of IS decision makers then, are
potentially important contributors to the priorities, goals, and behaviors that exist within the IS department As the priorities and goals of one department differ from those of another, this differentiation may cause difficulties between the two departments (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967a&b; Kintisch &
Trang 39value systems differ from those of non-IS professionals, interactions may be fraught with faulty assumptions,
misunderstandings and conflicts Such problems may prevent IS integration from becoming a reality The purpose of this study is to investigate differences in values between
Information Systems professionals and professionals in a
Non-IS discipline An understanding of these differences
will help move us closer to the realization of true IS- organizational integration
Outline Of The Study
Chapter Two will be dedicated to the background in which this study takes place The history of study into the
“engineer" - "businessman" relationship from Callan’s
observations through the present with special emphasis upon IS in the organization will be presented Several solutions have been proposed but none really addresses the root of the problem
Trang 40Chapter Four will describe the specific methodology of the study Data gathering procedures and procedures aimed at exploring the research questions will be discussed
Chapter Five will present outcomes of the data gathering and testing including results of the data analyses