MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition pot

P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition i Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition, by William R. Hendee and E. Russell Ritenour ISBN: 0-471-38226-4 Copyright C  2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc. P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition William R. Hendee, Ph.D. Senior Associate Dean and Vice President Dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Professor and Vice Chair of Radiology Professor of Radiation Oncology, Biophysics, Bioethics Medical College of Wisconsin Professor of Biomedical Engineering Marquette University E. Russell Ritenour, Ph.D. Professor and Chief of Radiology Physics, Medical School Director of Graduate Studies in Biophysical Sciences and Medical Physics, Graduate School University of Minnesota A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION iii P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞  Copyright C 2002 by Wiley-Liss, Inc., New York. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. DISCLAIMER While the authors, editors, and publisher believe that drug selection and dosage and the specification and usage of equipment and devices, as set forth in this book, are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication, they accept no legal responsibility for any errors or omissions and make no warranty, express or implied, with respect to material contained herein. 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ISBN 0-471-38226-4 Printed in the United States of America. 10987654321 iv P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 Ad hoc, ad loc and quid pro quo so little time so much to know. Jeremy Hillary Boob, Ph.D. The Nowhere Man in the Yellow Submarine v P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 CONTENTS IN BRIEF PREFACE xv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 1 IMAGING IN MEDICINE 1 2 STRUCTURE OF MATTER 11 3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY 27 4 INTERACTIONS OF RADIATION 45 5 PRODUCTION OF X RAYS 69 6 RADIATION QUANTITY AND QUALITY 91 7 INTERACTION OF X AND γ RAYS IN THE BODY 117 8 RADIATION DETECTORS FOR QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT 127 9 ACCUMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR DATA 143 10 COMPUTERS AND IMAGE NETWORKING 161 11 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS 179 12 INSTRUMENTATION FOR NUCLEAR IMAGING 197 13 RADIOGRAPHY 217 14 FLUOROSCOPY 235 15 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 251 16 INFLUENCES ON IMAGE QUALITY 265 17 ANALYTIC DESCRIPTION OF IMAGE QUALITY 281 18 VISUAL PERCEPTION 289 19 ULTRASOUND WAVES 303 20 ULTRASOUND TRANSDUCERS 317 21 ULTRASOUND INSTRUMENTATION 331 22 DOPPLER EFFECT 343 23 FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE 355 24 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY 367 25 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING: INSTRUMENTATION, BIOEFFECTS, AND SITE PLANNING 389 26 EXPERIMENTAL RADIOBIOLOGY 403 27 HUMAN RADIOBIOLOGY 413 28 PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL SOURCES OF RADIATION 435 29 PROTECTION FROM INTERNAL SOURCES OF RADIATION 455 30 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDICAL IMAGING 467 APPENDIX I REVIEW OF MATHEMATICS 477 APPENDIX II FOURIER TRANSFORM 483 APPENDIX III MULTIPLES AND PREFIXES 485 APPENDIX IV MASSES IN ATOMIC MASS UNITS FOR NEUTRAL ATOMS OF STABLE NUCLIDES AND A FEW UNSTABLE NUCLIDES 487 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 491 INDEX 495 vii P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 CONTENTS PREFACE xv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 1 IMAGING IN MEDICINE 1 OBJECTIVES 2 INTRODUCTION 2 CONCLUSIONS 9 REFERENCES 9 2 STRUCTURE OF MATTER 11 OBJECTIVES 12 THE ATOM 12 SOLIDS 17 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 18 THE NUCLEUS 19 NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION 21 NUCLEAR SPIN AND NUCLEAR MAGNETIC MOMENTS 22 NUCLEAR NOMENCLATURE 23 PROBLEMS 23 SUMMARY 24 REFERENCES 25 3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY 27 OBJECTIVES 28 NUCLEAR STABILITY AND DECAY 28 ALPHA DECAY 29 DECAY SCHEMES 29 BETA DECAY 30 ISOMERIC TRANSITIONS 33 MATHEMATICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 33 DECAY EQUATIONS AND HALF-LIFE 35 TRANSIENT EQUILIBRIUM 37 ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF RADIONUCLIDES 39 MATHEMATICS OF NUCLIDE PRODUCTION BY NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT 40 INFORMATION ABOUT RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDES 41 PROBLEMS 41 SUMMARY 42 REFERENCES 43 4 INTERACTIONS OF RADIATION 45 OBJECTIVES 46 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERACTIONS 46 DIRECTLY IONIZING RADIATION 46 INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS 48 INTERACTIONS OF HEAVY, CHARGED PARTICLES 50 INDIRECTLY IONIZING RADIATION 50 INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS 50 ATTENUATION OF X AND γ RADIATION 51 NONIONIZING RADIATION 64 INTERACTIONS OF NONIONIZING ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 66 PROBLEMS 67 SUMMARY 67 REFERENCES 68 5 PRODUCTION OF X RAYS 69 OBJECTIVES 70 INTRODUCTION 70 CONVENTIONAL X-RAY TUBES 70 ELECTRON SOURCE 70 TUBE VOLTAGE AND VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS 71 ix P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 x ❘ CONTENTS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FILAMENT CURRENT AND TUBE CURRENT 73 EMISSION SPECTRA 73 FILTRATION 74 TUBE VACUUM 79 ENVELOPE AND HOUSING 79 SPECIAL-PURPOSE X-RAY TUBES 81 RATINGS FOR X-RAY TUBES 82 PROBLEMS 88 SUMMARY 88 REFERENCES 89 6 RADIATION QUANTITY AND QUALITY 91 OBJECTIVES 92 INTENSITY 92 TRADITIONAL VERSUS SYST ` EME INTERNATIONAL UNITS 94 RADIATION EXPOSURE 95 UNITS OF RADIATION DOSE 98 DOSE EQUIVALENT 100 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION DOSE 102 HALF-VALUE LAYER 111 VARIATION IN QUALITY ACROSS AN X-RAY BEAM 112 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF AN X-RAY BEAM 113 PROBLEMS 113 SUMMARY 114 REFERENCES 115 7 INTERACTION OF X AND γ RAYS IN THE BODY 117 OBJECTIVES 118 INTRODUCTION 118 F FACTOR 118 ATTENUATION OF X AND γ RAYS IN TISSUE 119 DOSE TO SOFT TISSUE BEYOND BONE 121 HIGH-VOLTAGE RADIOGRAPHY 122 LOW-VOLTAGE RADIOGRAPHY 122 CONTRAST MEDIA 123 PROBLEMS 125 SUMMARY 125 REFERENCES 125 8 RADIATION DETECTORS FOR QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT 127 OBJECTIVES 128 IONIZATION CHAMBERS 128 PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS 131 GEIGER–M ¨ ULLER TUBES 132 SOLID SCINTILLATION DETECTORS 134 LIQUID SCINTILLATION DETECTORS 136 SEMICONDUCTOR RADIATION DETECTORS 138 PROBLEMS 140 SUMMARY 140 REFERENCES 141 9 ACCUMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR DATA 143 OBJECTIVES 144 INTRODUCTION 144 COUNTING SYSTEMS 144 DETERMINATE ERRORS IN RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 149 GAMMA-RAY SPECTROMETRY 152 PULSE HEIGHT SPECTRA 152 PHOTOPEAK COUNTING 156 RADIOACTIVE AGENTS FOR CLINICAL STUDIES 157 PROBLEMS 158 SUMMARY 159 REFERENCES 160 10 COMPUTERS AND IMAGE NETWORKING 161 OBJECTIVES 162 HISTORY 162 MACHINE REPRESENTATION OF DATA 163 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE 168 SOFTWARE 173 NETWORKING 173 PROBLEMS 177 P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 CONTENTS ❘ xi SUMMARY 177 REFERENCES 178 11 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS 179 OBJECTIVES 180 INTRODUCTION 180 NATURE OF ERROR 180 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 181 SIGNAL AND NOISE 183 METHODS TO DESCRIBE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 184 PROPAGATION OF ERROR 188 OTHER METHODS FOR DESCRIBING PRECISION 190 SELECTED STATISTICAL TESTS 192 SUMMARY 195 PROBLEMS 195 REFERENCES 195 12 INSTRUMENTATION FOR NUCLEAR IMAGING 197 OBJECTIVES 198 INTRODUCTION 198 MEASUREMENT OF ACCUMULATION AND EXCRETION RATES 198 SINGLE-CRYSTAL SCINTILLATION CAMERA 201 PRINCIPLES OF SCINTILLATION CAMERA OPERATION 202 MULTIPLE-CRYSTAL SCINTILLATION CAMERA 209 SOLID-STATE CAMERA 209 RECTILINEAR SCANNER 210 EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 210 PROBLEMS 214 SUMMARY 215 REFERENCES 215 13 RADIOGRAPHY 217 OBJECTIVES 218 X-RAY FILM 218 INTENSIFYING SCREENS 223 RADIOGRAPHIC GRIDS 226 MAGNIFICATION RADIOGRAPHY 229 DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 230 PROBLEMS 233 SUMMARY 234 REFERENCES 234 14 FLUOROSCOPY 235 OBJECTIVES 236 FLUOROSCOPY AND IMAGE INTENSIFICATION 236 TELEVISION DISPLAY OF THE FLUOROSCOPIC IMAGE 241 DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY 244 AUTOMATIC BRIGHTNESS CONTROL 245 CINEFLUOROGRAPHY 247 PROBLEMS 248 SUMMARY 249 REFERENCES 249 15 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 251 OBJECTIVES 252 INTRODUCTION 252 HISTORY 252 PRINCIPLE OF COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC IMAGING 253 RECONSTRUCTION ALGORITHMS 254 SCAN MOTIONS 255 X-RAY SOURCES 258 COLLIMATION 258 X-RAY DETECTORS 258 VIEWING SYSTEMS 258 PATIENT DOSE 259 QUALITY CONTROL 260 SUMMARY 262 PROBLEMS 262 REFERENCES 262 16 INFLUENCES ON IMAGE QUALITY 265 OBJECTIVES 266 INTRODUCTION 266 UNSHARPNESS 266 CONTRAST 270 P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 xii ❘ CONTENTS IMAGE NOISE 274 IMAGE DISTORTION AND ARTIFACTS 276 SUMMARY 278 PROBLEMS 278 REFERENCES 279 17 ANALYTIC DESCRIPTION OF IMAGE QUALITY 281 OBJECTIVES 282 INTRODUCTION 282 POINT RESPONSE 282 LINE RESPONSE 282 CONTRAST RESPONSE 283 MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION 284 QUANTUM LEVELS AND CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES 286 SUMMARY 286 PROBLEMS 287 REFERENCES 287 18 VISUAL PERCEPTION 289 OBJECTIVES 290 INTRODUCTION 290 HUMAN VISION 292 DETECTION OF VISUAL INFORMATION 295 VISUAL ACUITY 296 CONTRAST DISCRIMINATION 296 RECOGNITION AND INTERPRETATION OF VISUAL INFORMATION 298 EXPRESSIONS OF VISUAL PERFORMANCE 298 SUMMARY 300 PROBLEMS 301 REFERENCES 301 19 ULTRASOUND WAVES 303 OBJECTIVES 304 INTRODUCTION 304 HISTORY 304 WAVE MOTION 304 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 305 ULTRASOUND INTENSITY 306 ULTRASOUND VELOCITY 307 ATTENUATION OF ULTRASOUND 308 REFLECTION 311 REFRACTION 313 ABSORPTION 314 SUMMARY 315 PROBLEMS 316 REFERENCES 316 20 ULTRASOUND TRANSDUCERS 317 OBJECTIVES 318 INTRODUCTION 318 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT 318 TRANSDUCER DESIGN 319 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TRANSDUCERS 320 ULTRASOUND BEAMS 321 PROBLEMS 329 SUMMARY 329 REFERENCES 329 21 ULTRASOUND INSTRUMENTATION 331 OBJECTIVES 332 PRESENTATION MODES 332 TIME REQUIRED TO OBTAIN IMAGES 333 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 335 SIGNAL PROCESSING 335 DYNAMIC RANGE 337 ULTRASOUND IMAGE ARTIFACTS 338 QUALITY CONTROL 338 PROBLEMS 340 SUMMARY 341 REFERENCES 341 22 DOPPLER EFFECT 343 OBJECTIVES 344 ORIGIN OF DOPPLER SHIFT 344 LIMITATIONS OF DOPPLER SYSTEMS 351 PROBLEMS 352 SUMMARY 352 REFERENCES 353 P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 CONTENTS ❘ xiii 23 FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE 355 OBJECTIVES 356 INTERACTION OF NUCLEI WITH A STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD 356 ROTATION AND PRECESSION 356 INTERACTION OF NUCLEI WITH A RADIO FREQUENCY WAVE: NUTATION 357 INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC RESONANCE SIGNAL IN A COIL 358 QUANTUM MECHANICAL INTERPRETATION 359 BULK MAGNETIZATION 360 RELAXATION PROCESSES: T1 AND T2 361 RELAXATION TIMES (T1 AND T2) FOR BIOLOGIC MATERIALS 363 PROBLEMS 364 SUMMARY 364 REFERENCES 364 24 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY 367 OBJECTIVES 368 OVERVIEW: MAGNETIC RESONANCE AS A PROBE OF THE BODY 368 PULSE SEQUENCES 368 SPATIAL ENCODING OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING SIGNAL 370 MOTION SUPPRESSION TECHNIQUES 374 CONTRAST AGENTS 376 TISSUE CONTRAST IN MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 377 MR ANGIOGRAPHY 380 SPECTROSCOPY 380 CHEMICAL SHIFT IMAGING 383 PROBLEMS 384 SUMMARY 384 REFERENCES 385 25 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING: INSTRUMENTATION, BIOEFFECTS, AND SITE PLANNING 389 OBJECTIVES 390 MAIN SYSTEM MAGNET 390 GRADIENT MAGNETIC FIELDS 391 RADIO-FREQUENCY COILS 391 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 392 COMPUTER 393 ARTIFACTS 393 QUALITY ASSURANCE 395 BIOEFFECTS 395 SITE PLANNING 398 SUMMARY 400 REFERENCES 401 26 EXPERIMENTAL RADIOBIOLOGY 403 OBJECTIVES 404 INTRODUCTION 404 INTERACTIONS AT THE CELL AND TISSUE LEVELS 405 CELL SURVIVAL STUDIES 405 MODIFICATION OF CELLULAR RESPONSES 406 ANIMAL STUDIES 409 CONCLUSIONS 411 REFERENCES 411 27 HUMAN RADIOBIOLOGY 413 OBJECTIVES 414 STOCHASTIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 414 NONSTOCHASTIC EFFECTS OF RADIATION 414 DOSIMETRY IN INDIVIDUALS AND POPULATIONS 416 BACKGROUND RADIATION 417 HUMAN POPULATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO UNUSUAL LEVELS OF RADIATION 419 DOSE-EFFECT MODELS 423 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DOSE–EFFECT MODELS 425 ESTIMATING RISKS OF RADIATION: BEIR REPORT 426 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 429 SUMMARY 431 REFERENCES 431 28 PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL SOURCES OF RADIATION 435 OBJECTIVES 436 REGULATORY AUTHORITY FOR RADIATION PROTECTION 437 [...]... of medical imaging In recognition of these challenges, the authors decided two years ago to restructure Medical Imaging Physics into a fourth edition with a fresh approach and an entirely new format This decision led to a total rewriting of the text We hope that this new edition will make studying imaging physics more efficient, effective, and pleasurable It certainly has made writing it more fun Medical. .. PB130-Hendee January 30, 2003 17:13 C H A P T E R 1 IMAGING IN MEDICINE OBJECTIVES 2 INTRODUCTION 2 Advances in Medical Imaging 4 Evolutionary Developments in Imaging 5 Molecular Medicine 5 Historical Approaches to Diagnosis 6 Capsule History of Medical Imaging 7 Introduction of Computed Tomography 8 CONCLUSIONS 9 REFERENCES 9 Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition, by William R Hendee and E Russell Ritenour... development of imaging methods r Molecular biology and genetics are new frontiers for imaging technologies r Introduction of x-ray computed tomography was a signal event in the evolution of medical imaging ❘ REFERENCES ❘ 1 Hendee, W R Physics and applications of medical imaging Rev Mod Phys 1999; 71(2), Centenary:S444–S450 2 Beck, R N Tying Science and Technology Together in Medical Imaging, in Hendee,... of imaging science is at the molecular and genetic levels It is wrong to think that the task of physics is to find out what nature is Physics concerns what we can say about nature.” Niels Bohr (as quoted in Pagels, H., The Cosmic Code, Simons and Schuster, 1982.) CONCLUSIONS r Medical imaging is both a science and a tool to explore human anatomy and to study physiology and biochemistry r Medical imaging. .. to be a co-author He was equally willing to co-author this 4th edition Future editions will bear his imprint as principal author of Medical Imaging Physics Several other persons deserve recognition for their support of this project Foremost are Ms Terri Komar and Ms Mary Beth Drapp, both of whom have been instrumental in moving the fourth edition to completion Terri worked with me as Executive Assistant... 2002 18:17 IMAGING IN MEDICINE OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to: r Identify the energy sources, tissue properties, and image properties employed in medical imaging r Name several factors influencing the increasing role of imaging in healthcare today r Define the expression “molecular medicine” and give examples r Provide a summary of the history of medical imaging r... this capability In medicine, their use in association with imaging technologies greatly enhances the potential contribution of medical imaging to resolution of patient problems in the clinical setting At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the six evolutionary developments discussed above provide the framework for major advances in medical imaging and its contributions to improvements in the health... demands that medical imaging expand its focus from the organ and tissue levels to the cellular and molecular levels of human disease and injury Many scientists believe that medical imaging is well-positioned today to experience this expanded focus as a benefit of knowledge gained at the research frontiers of molecular biology and genetics This benefit is often characterized as the entry of medical imaging. .. knowledge of the science, principally physics, that underlies the production of images Radiology and physics have been closely intertwined since x rays were discovered With the changes that have occurred in imaging over the past few years, the linkage between radiology and physics has grown even stronger Today a reasonable knowledge of physics, instrumentation, and imaging technology is essential for... APPENDIX IV 30 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDICAL IMAGING 467 OBJECTIVES 468 INTRODUCTION 468 MASSES IN ATOMIC MASS UNITS FOR NEUTRAL ATOMS OF STABLE NUCLIDES AND A FEW UNSTABLE NUCLIDES 487 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 491 INDEX 495 P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 PREFACE Writing and rewriting a text such as Medical Imaging Physics over several editions presents two challenges The first . P1: GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition i Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition, by William R. Hendee and E. Russell Ritenour ISBN:. PB130-Hendee March 7, 2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition William R. Hendee, Ph.D. Senior Associate Dean and Vice President Dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Professor. text such as Medical Imaging Physics over several editions presents two challenges. The first is to keep the information fresh and relevant. This is a particular challenge in medical imaging, because