Continued part 1, part 2 of ebook Consumer behavior: Building marketing strategy presents the following content: consumer decision process; situational influences; consumer decision process and problem recognition; alternative evaluation and selection; organizational buyer behavior; postpurchase processes, customer satisfaction, and customer commitment;...
part IV CONSUMER DECISION PROCESS External Influences ience Exper cqu s and A isitions Culture Subculture Demographics Social Status Reference Groups Family Marketing Activities Self-Concept and Lifestyle Internal Influences Perception Learning Memory Motives Personality Emotions Attitudes Experie 468 nces and A cquisitions Up to now, we have focused on various Of particular importance to marketers sociological and psychological factors that is how situations and internal and external contribute to different patterns of consumer sources of influence affect the purchase behavior Though these various influences decision process The extended consumer play a significant role in behavior, all behavior decision process, shown on this page, is com- takes place within the context of a situa- posed of a sequence of activities: problem rec- tion Chapter 13 provides a discussion of the ognition, information search, brand evaluation impact situational variables have on consumer and selection, outlet choice and purchase, and behavior postpurchase processes However, extended decision making occurs only in those relatively rare situations when the consumer is highly involved in the purchase Lower levels of purDecision Process Needs Desires chase involvement produce limited or nominal decision making Chapter 14 describes those Situations various types of decisions and their relation- Problem Recognition ship to involvement It also analyzes the first Information Search Alternative Evaluation and Selection Outlet Selection and Purchase Postpurchase Processes stage of the process—problem recognition Information search, in various forms including online, mobile, and offline, constitutes the second stage of the consumer decision process and is discussed in Chapter 15 Chapter 16 examines the alternative evaluation and selection process Chapter 17 deals with outlet selection and the in-store and online influences that often determine final brand choice The final stage of the consumer decision process, presented in Chapter 18, involves behaviors after the purchase These include postpurchase dissonance, product use and disposition, and satisfaction and loyalty Both cognitive (thinking) and emotional (feeling) processes are important at each stage of the decision process 469 chapter 13 470 Situational Influences LEA RNING OBJECTIVES LO1 Define situational influence LO4 Discuss ritual situations and their importance to consumers and marketers LO2 Explain the four types of situations and their relevance to marketing strategy LO5 Describe the use of situational influence in developing marketing strategy LO3 Summarize the five characteristics of situations and their influence on consumption Did you realize that companies change their marketing tactics geographically depending on the weather and how it is changing? How weather is changing is the critical part here because it creates “situations” into which marketers can offer their products as solutions For example, when temperatures are temporarily colder than usual, consumers will deviate from their normal purchase pattern Sometimes this means buying more of a certain item such as Campbell’s Slow Kettle Style Soup to provide a nice hot meal on a cold winter’s day Sometimes this means buying different products such as a heavier jacket.1 Planalytics is a major global player in helping marketers track and react to changing weather situations It is a geographically based system that looks at what we will later term “momentary conditions.” Planalytics offers a Weather-Driven Demand (WDD) approach, which they describe, in part, as “a numerical representation of the consumer need for a product or service caused by perceived changes in the weather at a time/ location intersection.” This perception change by time/location intersection creates a situation of which marketers attempt to take advantage As Planalytics’ COO states: That’s where the marketing gold that needs to be mined is Marketing into a situation that’s favorable to your product [causes] the numbers to go off the chart Examples of clients who use Planalytics to adjust their marketing efforts include • • Campbell Soup Campbell Soup has created a “misery index” that is based on weather changes, such as within day, within week, year over year, and so on, with bonus points for snow or rain When the misery index hits a certain mark, Campbell will deliver chicken soup ads to that market It has over 30 such geographic markets that it tracks and targets in this way and is also in the process of creating a flu index Lands’ End This global retailer uses weather information to plan and forecast inventories, tweak merchandising and promotional offerings, and so on It also examines historical demand as a function of “unusual” weather patterns and discounts future estimates accordingly So, for example, if there was an unusually hot spring season in the United Kingdom one year, with sales of certain items (e.g., light apparel such as shorts) being high, they will discount next year’s estimates accordingly to avoid having overstocks New media options are available as well Google can track “trending” weather-related phrases such as “hot chocolate” and launch appropriate “new search campaigns within hours.” So, what’s your weather situation? 471 Part Four Consumer Decision Process 472 As the model we have used to organize this text indicates, the purchase decision and consumption process always occur in the context of a specific situation Therefore, before examining the decision process, we must first develop an understanding of situations In this chapter, we will examine the situations in which consumption occurs, the way situations influence consumption behaviors, key characteristics of situations, the nature of ritual situations, and situation-based marketing strategies THE NATURE OF SITUATIONAL INFLUENCE LO1 Consumers not respond to stimuli such as advertisements and products presented by marketers in isolation; instead, they respond to marketing influences and the situation simultaneously To understand a consumer’s behavior, we must know about the consumer; about the primary stimulus object, such as a product or advertisement to which the consumer is responding; and about the situation in which the response is occurring.2 We define situational influence as all those factors particular to a time and place that not follow from a knowledge of the stable attributes of the consumer and the stimulus and that have an effect on current behavior.3 Thus, with one exception, the situation stands apart from the consumer and the stimulus The exception is in the case of temporary (as opposed to stable) characteristics of a consumer or stimulus that are specific to the situation and sometimes even caused by it For example, a consumer may generally be upbeat (stable trait), but just prior to viewing a firm’s ad sees a disturbing news flash that puts her in a bad mood This bad mood is a transient state (situational factor) caused by the surrounding media context in which the focal ad appears Other such temporary conditions include illness and time pressure Consumer involvement also includes a situationspecific component That is, some consumers are involved only when they have to make a purchase A key marketing finding is that consumers often react and behave very differently depending on the situation We discussed some of these effects in earlier chapters For example, an ad or in-store display that might otherwise attract consumer attention may not so in a cluttered environment (Chapter 8) Or an ad that might be persuasive in a nonpurchase situation may be much less persuasive in a purchase situation where consumers are on the market to buy (Chapter 11) The interplay between situation, marketing, and the individual is shown in Figure 13–1 Consumer behavior occurs within four broad categories or types of situations: the communications situation, the purchase situation, the usage situation, and the disposition situation The Communications Situation LO2 The situation in which consumers receive information has an impact on their behavior Whether one is alone or in a group, in a good mood or bad, in a hurry or not influences the degree to which one sees and listens to marketing communications Is it better to advertise on a happy or sad television program? A calm or exciting program? These are some of the questions managers must answer with respect to the communications situation.4 Marketers often attempt to place their ads in appropriate media contexts to enhance their effectiveness Some even go so far as to mandate that their ads be “pulled” when programming content negative to their company or industry will appear Recent examples include Morgan Stanley and BP What are the ethical implications of such policies?5 A marketer is able to deliver an effective message to consumers who are interested in the product and are in a receptive communications situation However, finding highinterest potential buyers in receptive communications situations is a difficult challenge Chapter Thirteen Situational Influences The Situation Interacts with the Marketing Activity and the Individual to Determine Behavior 473 FIGURE Situation Communications Purchase Use Disposition Situation characteristics Physical features Social surroundings Temporal perspective Task definition Antecedent states Marketing activity Individual characteristics Consumption responses Culture and subculture Demographics Social class Motivation Personality Attitudes Lifestyle Problem recognition Information processing Alternative evaluation Purchase Use Disposition Evaluation Product Package Advertisement Sales presentation Retail outlet For example, consider the difficulty a marketer would have in communicating to you in the following communications situations: • • • • • Your favorite team just lost the most important game of the year Final exams begin tomorrow Your roommates watch only comedy programs You have the flu You are driving home on a cold night, and your car heater doesn’t work The Purchase Situation The situation in which a purchase is made can influence consumer behavior Mothers shopping with children are more apt to be influenced by the product preferences of their children than when shopping without them A shortage of time, such as trying to make a purchase between classes, can affect the store-choice decision, the number of brands c onsidered, and the price the shopper is willing to pay At an even more basic level, whether or not a consumer is in a “purchase mode” influences a whole host of behaviors from advertising 13-1 474 Part Four Consumer Decision Process responses to shopping Consider, for example, how differently you might behave at Best Buy if you were there only to browse versus being there to replace a broken Blu-ray player Marketers must understand how purchase situations influence consumers in order to develop marketing strategies that enhance the purchase of their products For example, how would you alter your decision to purchase a beverage in the following purchase situations? • • • • • You are in a very bad mood A good friend says, “That stuff is bad for you!” The store you visit does not carry your favorite brand There is a long line at the checkout counter as you enter the store You are with someone you want to impress The Usage Situation What beverage would you prefer to consume in each of the following usage situations? • • • • • Friday afternoon after your last final exam With your parents for lunch After dinner on a cold, stormy evening At a dinner with a friend you have not seen in several years When you are feeling sad or homesick Marketers need to understand the usage situations for which their products are, or may become, appropriate Using this knowledge, marketers can communicate how their products create consumer satisfaction in each relevant usage situation For example, a recent study found that consuming two 1.5-cup servings of oat-based cereal a day could lower cholesterol How could General Mills take advantage of this finding to increase sales of its oat-based cereal Cheerios? A recent ad depicts a dad coming home late from work and having Cheerios for dinner When asked why by his young daughter, he replies, “Because they taste just as good at night.” Research indicates that expanded usage situation strategies can produce major sales gains for established products.6 Coach went away from the traditional two-occasion (everyday and dressy) approach to handbags and moved toward what it calls a “usage voids” approach Now Coach offers a wide range of products, including weekend bags, coin purses, clutches, and wristlets in a variety of colors and fabrics The goal is to get consumers more attuned to the various usage situations available in which to accessorize and then create bags to fit the situations.7 Dunkin’ Donuts found that over half of donut consumption was for breakfast, but roughly 34 percent was for nonbreakfast snacks In response, the company has created simple yet imaginative make-at-home snack and dessert recipes, such as Cocoa Donut and Strawberry Grilled Cheese, to encourage consumers to think of and use the company’s products in new ways [They are also tapping the specialty occasions market with] limited-time offers, such as the heart-shaped Valentine’s “Cupid’s Choice.”8 The GoGo Squeez ad in Illustration 13–1 provides another example of a company trying to expand the usage situations for its brand The Disposition Situation Consumers must frequently dispose of products or product packages after or before product use As we will examine in detail in Chapter 18, decisions made by consumers regarding Chapter Thirteen Situational Influences the disposition situation can create significant social problems as well as opportunities for marketers Some consumers consider ease of disposition an important product attribute These people may purchase only items that can be easily recycled Often disposition of an existing product must occur before or simultaneously with the acquisition of the new product For example, most consumers must remove their existing bed before using a new one Marketers need to understand how situational influences affect disposition decisions in order to develop more effective and ethical products and marketing programs Government and environmental organizations need the same knowledge in order to encourage socially responsible disposition decisions How would your disposition decision differ in these situations? 475 ILLUSTRATION 13-1 Many products become defined for particular usage situations Firms that are able to expand the range of usage situations deemed appropriate for their brands can capture significant sales gains This GoGo Squeez ad is attempting to show how its applesauce can be consumed in various situations • You have finished a soft drink in a can at a mall There is a trashcan nearby, but there is no sign of a recycling container • You have finished reading the newspaper after class, and you note that you are running late for a basketball game • You and two friends have finished soft drinks Both your friends toss the recyclable cans into a nearby garbage container • A local charity will accept old refrigerators if they are delivered to the charity Your garbage service will haul one to the dump for $15 You just bought a new refrigerator You don’t know anyone (or you know someone) with a pickup or van SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR The situations discussed above can be described on a number of dimensions that determine their influence on consumer behavior The five key dimensions or characteristics are physical surroundings, social surroundings, temporal perspectives, task definition, and antecedent states.9 These characteristics have been studied primarily in the United States While the same characteristics of the situation exist across cultures, a marketer should not assume that the response to these characteristics would be the same For example, a crowded store might cause a different emotional reaction among American consumers than among consumers in India.10 Physical Surroundings Physical surroundings include decor, sounds, aromas, lighting, weather, and configurations of merchandise or other materials surrounding the stimulus object Physical surroundings are a widely used type of situational influence, particularly for retail applications Consumer Insight 13–1 sheds further light onto one aspect of the physical retail environment, namely mannequins LO3 CONSUMER INSIGHT 13-1 Mannequins, More Than Just Store Dummies Perhaps equally as true as the statement “the clothes make the man”11 is the statement “the mannequin makes the clothes.” Forty-two percent of consumers polled in a recent study stated that what they saw displayed on a mannequin influenced their purchase decision.12 With the forecast that “All department stores will become museums, and all museums will become department stores,” threatening to become ever more real with online retail encroachment into their sales, brick-and-mortar stores are fighting back with an army of mannequins The plain white faceless, sometimes headless, torso mannequin that quietly blended unnoticed into the background has been replaced with a new breed of mannequins that scream with attention-arresting poses, and astoundingly realistic physical features To be more than the colorless, uniform clotheshanger mannequins of yesteryear, mannequins today are being created to personalize the brand For example, Nike mannequins come alive in action poses to communicate the energy and dynamism of athleticism, and the runway model poses of Guess mannequins exemplify fashion sophistication and confidence Mannequins have long been the silent salespersons, ranking third, after friends and family, in influencing purchasing behavior It turns out that realistic, larger-sized mannequins are better sales people Recent research shows that women are three times more likely to buy clothes when they see them on a mannequin related to their size Macy’s, Nordstrom, and the British Debenhams department stores are using or report plans to use more realistic, full-bodied mannequins Developed after an extensive study that involved scanning thousands of women’s bodies to arrive at a better understanding of women’s proportions, the mannequins in David’s Bridal, the largest chain of bridal stores in the United States, have thicker waists and realistic imperfections Another trend in mannequin realism centers not so much on creating more realistic body types, but on providing mannequins with realistic details including pierced ears, tattoos, movable limbs to better display clothes, and articulated fingers to better show off rings Mannequins have progressed beyond being a silent salesperson Some mannequins are also data collectors EyeSee Mannequins are traditional-looking mannequins, except they have eyes fitted with a camera lens that captures data on passersby The data are fed to facial recognition software; mined for shoppers’ age, gender, and ethnicity; and used in forecasting models to develop marketing campaigns and store displays Mindful of consumer privacy, EyeSee mannequins not record or send data of a sensitive nature such as biometric data Much more than just store dummies, mannequins contribute to the brick-and-mortar shopping experience, exuding appeal to entice consumers to visit stores, poising provocatively to capture consumer attention, and sized and detailed to motivate consumers to make purchases Mannequins serve as a store ambassador, evangelizing brand image and selling clothes Critical Thinking Questions Have you noticed the new mannequins in stores where you shop for clothes? What is your reaction? The new types of mannequins have centered more on women than men Would men be more likely to buy clothes displayed on mannequins related to their size? Digital mannequins collect data from passersby who are unaware that they are being recorded Is this ethical? External retail factors such as the architecture, arrangement, and assortment of retailers are an important influence on consumer shopping experiences In addition, store interiors are often designed to create specific feelings in shoppers that can have an important cueing or reinforcing effect on purchase All physical aspects of the store, including lighting, 476 Chapter Thirteen Situational Influences 477 ILLUSTRATION 13-2 layout, presentation of merchandise, fixtures, floor coverings, colors, sounds, odors, and dress and behavior of sales personnel, combine to produce these feelings, which in turn influence purchase tendencies.13 A retail clothing store specializing in extremely stylish, modern clothing would want its fixtures, furnishings, and colors to reflect an overall mood of style, flair, and newness (see Illustration 13–2) In addition, the store personnel should carry this theme in terms of their own appearance and apparel Compare this with the interior of a so-called discount retailer, also shown in the illustration It is important to note that one is not superior to the other Each attempts to create an appropriate atmosphere for its target audience The sum of all the physical features of a retail environment is referred to as the store atmosphere or environment (see Chapter 17) Store atmosphere influences consumer judgments of store quality and image It also has been shown to influence shoppers’ moods and their willingness to visit and linger Atmospherics is the process managers use to manipulate the physical retail environment to create specific mood responses in shoppers.14 Atmospherics is also important online and is receiving increasing attention from marketers.15 Atmosphere is referred to as servicescape when describing a service business such as a hospital, bank, or restaurant.16 Figure 13–2 classifies services according to the reason the customer is using the service and the length of time the service will be used The consumption purpose is categorized along a continuum from strictly utilitarian, such as dry cleaning, to completely hedonic, such as a massage The time can range from a few minutes to days or weeks Physical characteristics and the feelings and image they create become increasingly important as hedonic motives and the time involved with the service increase Thus, the physical characteristics of a vacation resort may be as important as or more important than the intangible services provided It is important that Figure 13–2 be interpreted correctly It indicates that the physical environment at Starbucks is more important to the service experience than the physical features of dry cleaners are This does not mean that the physical aspects of dry cleaners are not important Indeed, an organized, professional-appearing dry cleaning establishment is likely to produce more satisfied customers than one with the opposite characteristics What the figure does indicate is that the relative importance of Retail store interiors should provide a physical environment consistent with the nature of the target market, the product line, and the desired image of the outlet 772 Subject Index Associative links, 318 Astrosurfing, 238–239 Atmospherics, 477, 605 AT&T, 56, 630–631, 635 Attention, 275, 279–289 color and size on, 283 individual factors and, 286–287 measures of, 743–744 nonfocused, 287–289 situational factors and, 287 stimulus factors and, 280–289 Attitude(s), 384 affective component of, 387–388 ambivalent, 391 behavioral component of, 388–390 cognitive component of, 384–387 component consistency and, 390–391 components, 384–391 market segmentation and, 407–409 Attitude-based choice, 553 Attitude change affective component of, 393–395 behavioral component of, 395 cognitive component of, 392–393 communication characteristics and, 397–407 cue relevance and competitive situation and, 397 elaboration likelihood model and, 395 individual and situational characteristics, 395–397 resistance to persuasion and, 397 strategies for, 392–395 Attitude scales, 740–742 Attraction, 217 Attribute-based choice, 555, 557, 564–565, 591 Attribute framing, 407 Attribution, need for, 356–357 Attribution-oriented, 91 Attribution theory, 356 Autonomy, 357–358 Avoidance-avoidance conflict, 363–364 Avoidance-avoidance motivational conflict, 363–364 Awareness set, 521 b Baby boomers, 120–121, 193 segmenting the market, 122 Balancers, 91 Banana Republic, 479 Bath & Body Works, 479 Behavioral component, 388–390 changing of, 395 direct vs indirect approach, 390 Behavioral targeting, 13, 531 Believers, 433 Bell Atlantic, 341 Benefit, 385 Benefit chain, 362 Benefit segmentation, 407 Best Buy, 161 Black Entertainment Television (BET), 154 Blind test, 563 Blogs, 238 Blue Cross Blue Shield (BC/BS), 237 BMW, 151–152, 526 Born-again Christians, 171–172 Bounded rationality, 552–553 Boys and Girls Club of America, 91 Brand(s), 273 awareness of, 332 information gathering on, 198 retail outlets, 583 store retailer brands, 594 Brand choice in-store and online influences, 601–609 mobile and mobile apps, 608 outlet atmosphere and, 605–607 point-of-purchase materials and, 603–604 price reductions and, 604–605 promotional deals and, 604–605 sales personnel and, 608–609 stockouts and, 607 unplanned purchases and, 601–603 website functioning and requirements, 607–608 Brand comfort, 638 Brand community, 220–222 marketing and, 221–222 MINI Cooper example, 221 Brand delight, 638 Brand effects, 296 Brand engagement, 422 Brand equity, 337, 341–344 Brand extensions, 299, 341 examples of, 343 risks associated with, 343 Brand familiarity, 286–287 Brand identification, 638 Brand image, 337–338, 591 product positioning, 337–341 self-concept and, 424 Branding/branding strategies, 299, 673 Brand leverage, 341–344 Brand loyalty, 638 Brand name branding strategies, 299 linguistic considerations, 299 logo development, 299–300 as quality indicator, 296 Brand personality, 353–354, 368 communication of, 369–370 dimensions of, 369 Bribes/gifts, 688 British Petroleum (BP), 472 Buddhist subcultures, 173 Burger King, 301 Burston-Marsteller, 235 Business-to-business (B2B), 27, 684 Business-to-consumer (B2C), 27, 684 Buying centers, 674 Buzz, 237–238 c Café Press, 186 Calvin Klein, 204 Campbell Soup, 341, 471 Capture strategy, 540–541 Casio, 627 Catholic subculture, 170–171 Cause-related marketing (CRM), 78, 89–92 CBS, 89 Celebrity endorsers, 369 Celebrity sources, 398–400 Charles Schwab, 166 Chick-fil-A, 170 Child-dominant decisions, 199 Children see also Youth culture ability to learn, 203–204 advertising to, 713 commercial message comprehension by, 709–711 effects of commercial messages on, 711–713 household decision-making process, 198 marketing to, 713–715 supermarkets as classrooms for, 206–207 Children, marketing to, 207 commercialization of schools, 714 controversial activities and, 713–715 effects of commercial messages on, 711–713 Subject Index health and safety, 711–712 Internet marketing and, 714–715 mobile marketing and, 713–714 online privacy issues and, 715–716 regulation of, 708–716 selling intent of commercials, 709 values and, 712–713 Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU), 709–711 specific guidelines of, 712 Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), 715 key provisions of, 715 Choice overload, 552 Christian subcultures, 169–172 born-again, 171–172 Protestant, 171 Roman Catholic, 170–171 young religious, 170 Chronic accessibility, 364 Chrysler, 155, 192, 221, 327 Chunking, 315 Churn, 639 Cingular, 237 Claim-belief discrepancies, 298 Clairol, 237 Classical conditioning, 321–323, 327, 375 affective component, 393 consumer learning by, 322 Class to mass, 114, 131–132 Cleanliness, 49, 82–83 Clorox, 334 Closure, 295 Clutter, 287 CNN, 94, 130 Coach, 474 Co-branding, 299 Coca-Cola, 293, 408, 409 Cocktail party effect, 287 Cognitive age, 117 Cognitive component, 384–385 Cognitive dissonance, 356 Cognitive interpretation, 289 Cognitive learning analytical reasoning, 326 iconic rote learning, 325 vicarious learning or modeling, 325–326 Cognitive preservation motives, 356 Cohort analysis, 117–128 baby boom generation and, 120–121 Depression generation and, 118–120 Generation X, 121–124 Generation Y, 124–125 Generation Z, 125–128 pre-Depression generation and, 118 Coleman-Rainwater social class hierarchy, 129, 130 Colgate-Palmolive, 162, 165 Collectivist cultures, 48, 49 Color, 282–283, 293, 478 attention and, 283 Commercials see Advertising/ advertisements Committed customers, 638–642 marketing strategy and, 642–645 Commodity buyers, 694 Communications, 18–19 see also Marketing communications; Nonverbal communications to African Americans, 155–156 appeal characteristics and, 400–406 of brand personality, 369–370 for gay and lesbian consumers, 94 within groups, 229–237 to Hispanics, 160–161 mass communication information flows, 232 opinion leaders and, 229–237 products and, 66, 68 source characteristics and, 398–400 translation problems, 53 two-step flow of, 232 word-of-mouth, 229–231 Communications situation, 472–473 Communities, 220 brand, 220–222 online, 217 Company image, 337 Compaq, 299 Comparative ads, 404–405 Comparative rating scale, 741 Compensatory decision rule, 569–571 Competitive/cooperative orientation, 48–49, 88 Competitors, as component of market analysis, 12–13 Component consistency, 390–391 ConAgra Foods, 91, 195 Concepts, 316 Conceptual model, 24 Conditioning classical, 321–323 operant, 323–325 Conditions, as component of market analysis, 13 Conflict resolution, 201–202 773 Confucianism, 164 Conjoint analysis, 560–561, 739 Conjunctive decision rule, 565–566 Consideration set, 522 Consistency, need for, 356 Conspicuous consumers/consumption, 131, 419 Consumer(s) clustering/grouping of, 15–16 coping strategies for, 373–374 gay and lesbian, 78, 91–95 household life cycle, 189 as informed individuals, as market analysis component, 12–13 mass marketing, mood states of, 483–484 need for uniqueness, 368 social media, tracking, 582 Consumer behavior applications of, 8–9 consumer decision process and, 27 cultural factors affecting, 38 environment-oriented values, 43 external influences on, 24–25 internal influences on, 25–26 key aspects of, 6–7 marketing strategy and, 8–11 model of, 25 nature of, 24–27 organizations, 27 other-oriented values, 43 overview of, postpurchase, 622 regulation, 27 resistance to persuasion and, 397 self-concept and lifestyle, 26–27, 420 self-oriented values, 43 situational characteristics and, 293 social standing and, 128 store atmosphere and, 477, 605–606 unplanned purchases, 603 Consumer behavior audits, 745–750 customer satisfaction and commitment, 750 distribution strategy and, 747–748 market segmentation and, 746 pricing and, 747 product position and, 746–747 products and, 749 promotion strategy and, 748–749 774 Subject Index Consumer characteristics, 537–538 Consumer choice, 552–556 affective choice, 553 attitude-based choice, 553 attribute-based choice, 555 situational influences on, 572–573 types of processes, 553–556 Consumer complicity, 708 Consumer cost, 19 Consumer decision making, 20–21, 27 affective choice and, 553 attitude-based, 553 attribute-based, 555, 557, 564–565, 591 brand-loyal purchases, 500 evaluative criteria for, 521 extended, 241, 501 household influences, 184–185 information processing for, 274 information search and, 520–524 limited, 500–501 nominal, 500 problem recognition and, 510–513 product involvement, 499 purchase involvement, 498–499 repeat purchases, 500 Consumer decisions, types of, 498–501 Consumer emotional intelligence, 374 Consumer ethnocentrism, 367 Consumer-generated content, 230–231 Consumer inferences interpreting images and, 296–297 missing information and ethical concerns and, 297–298 quality signals and, 296 Consumer involvement, motivation, 363 Consumer privacy, 716–717 Consumer problems see also Problem recognition active, 504 activity and product analysis, 507–508 discovering problems, 507–509 emotion research, 509 helping consumers recognize, 510–513 human factors research, 509 identifying by online/social media, 508 inactive, 504 problem analysis, 509 responding to, 509–510 types of, 504–505 Consumer research methods advertising effects evaluation, 742–744 data collection methods, 735–742 primary data, 734–735 secondary data, 734 Consumer skills, 204 Consumer socialization ability of children to learn and, 203–204 content of, 204 process of, 205–206 supermarket as classroom, 206–207 Consumer-to-consumer sale, 629 Consummatory motives, 554 Consumption age and, 115 conspicuous, 131, 419 education level and, 113 ethnic subcultures and, 152 guilt, 623 injurious, 22–23 lifestyle and, 427 meaning of, 27–29 occupation and, 112 product/brand choice, 227 reference group influences and, 226 regional differences in, 174 situational characteristics and, 475–485 values, norms, sanctions and, 41 Consumption-related attitudes, 204 Consumption-related preferences, 204 Consumption subcultures, 217–219 marketing and, 219 Contextual cues, 293 Continuous innovation, 239–240 Contrast and expectations, 284–285 Coping, 373 Core service failure, 632 Corporate culture, 684 see also Organizational culture Corporate equality index (CEI), 93–94 Corrective advertising, 328–329, 721–722 Country of origin (COO), 296 Crate & Barrel, 627 Crayola, 198–199 Cross-cultural marketing, 64–68 see also Cultural values; Global marketing contextual, 293 Cross-promotions, 298 Crowding, 479–480 Crowd sourcing, 231 Cue relevance, 397 Cultural creatives, 86 Cultural differences, 42 Cultural values, 41, 78 active/passive, 51, 82 admire/overcome nature, 84–85 changes in American values, 78–88 cleanliness as, 82–83 competition/cooperation as, 48–49, 88 diversity/uniformity as, 49, 86–87 environmental-oriented values, 43, 49–51 extended/limited family, 46–47 global, 60–62 gratification/abstinence as, 80 hard work/leisure, 52, 82 individual/collective orientation as, 86 limited/extended family, 87 marketing strategy and, 88–100 masculine/feminine orientation, 47–48, 88 materialism/nonmaterialism as, 52, 81 material/nonmaterial, 52, 81 nature, 51 nonverbal communication and, 53–60 other-oriented orientation as, 43–49, 86–88 performance/status as, 49–50, 85–86 postponed/immediate gratification, 53, 80–81 problem solving/fatalistic attitude as, 50–51, 84 religious/secular views as, 53, 79–80 risk taking/security as, 50, 84 self-oriented view and, 43–44, 51–53, 78–82 sensual gratification/abstinence, 51–52, 80 time perspective as, 54–55 tradition/change as, 50, 79, 83–84 variations in, 43–53 youth/age orientation as, 45–46, 87–88 Culture, 24–25 see also Organizational culture concept of, 40–42 defined, 40 family purchase roles, 200–201 Subject Index global, 60–62 homogeneous vs heterogeneous, 65–66 needs satisfaction in, 66 Customer(s) see also Consumer(s) committed, 638 experience, need sets of, 15–16 Customer loyalty programs, 644 Customer profitability, 641 Customer relationship management (CRM), 678 Customer satisfaction see also Dissatisfaction customer commitment, 637–639, 750 determinants of, 631–633 expectations and performance, 631 as firm outcome, 22 outcomes, 643 postpurchase dissonance and, 622–623 repeat purchases, 637–639 Customer value, 10 d Data collection methods attitude scales as, 740–742 depth interviews as, 735–736 experimentation as, 738–739 observation as, 736 physiological measures as, 737 projective techniques as, 737 questionnaires as, 739–740 sampling, 734–735 surveys as, 737–738 Day-after recall (DAR), 744 Decision maker(s), 198 Decision making, 198–202, 621 see also Consumer decision making for children’s products, 199 CRM system, 678 extended, 501 involvement and types of, 499 limited, 500–501 nominal, 500 organizational, 671, 675, 694 relative income and, 201 Decision-making units (DMUs), 674–676 Decision rules for attribute-based choices, 564–573 compensatory, 569–571 conjunctive, 565–566 disjunctive, 566–567 elimination-by-aspects, 567–568 lexicographic, 568–569 noncompensatory, 569 postpurchase dissonance and, 622–623 summary of, 571–573 Delayed full nest I, 194 Dell, 231, 673 Demand, 360 Demographics age and, 115–117 definition, 63, 110 education and, 112–114 global, 62–64 income and, 114 occupation and, 112 population size and distribution, 110–111 variations, 39 Depression generation, 118–120 Depth interviews, 735–736 Desired state, 502 Diderot effect, 189 Diet quality, 139 Differentiation, 564 Diffusion enhancement strategies, 246–247 Diffusion inhibitors, 246 Diffusion process adopter categories and, 244 factors affecting, 242–244 marketing strategies and, 245–247 Digital natives, 125 Digital savvy consumers, 109 Direct appeal, 362 Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 165 Direct claims, 298 Direct mail, 207 Discontinuous innovation, 241–242 Discovery Channel, 86 Disjunctive decision rule, 566–567 Disney Corporation, 20, 713 Disposition, 627–630 alternatives for, 629 marketing strategy and, 628–630 situation, 474–475 Disrupt strategy, 539–540 Dissatisfaction determinants of, 631–633 marketing strategy and, 634–636 responses to, 633–636 775 Dissociative reference groups, 217 Distribution, 20, 66, 747–748 Diversity see Ethnic subcultures; Subcultures Diversity/uniformity, 49, 86–87 Dollar General Corporation, 135, 136 Dow Chemical, 53 Dual coding, 334–335 Dunkin’ Donuts, 474 Duracell Bunny, 37–38 Dynamic ad placement, 277 Dynamically continuous innovation, 240 Dyson, 497 e Early adopters, 245 Early majority, 245 Earworms, 331 eBay, 94, 519 Echoic memory, 335 Echo-Star, 165, 168, 169 Economic outcomes, 23 Eddie Bauer, 479 Education level, 112–114 consumption and, 113 E-fluentials, 234–235 Elaboration, 317 Elaboration likelihood model (ELM), 395–396 Elaborative activities, 316 Elimination-by-aspects decision rules, 567–568 Embarrassment, 480–481 Emotional ads, 405 Emotion research, 509 Emotions, 354, 370–372 in advertising, 374–375 arousal of, 372–373 consumer coping, 373–374 marketing strategy and, 372–375 nature of, 371 organizational decisions and, 692 reduction of, 373 types of, 371–372 Empty nest, 120 Empty nest I, 193–194 Empty nest II, 195 Endowment effect, 621 Enduring involvement, 234 Energizer Bunny, 37, 38 Environmental fragrancing, 478 776 Subject Index Environment-oriented values, 43 admire/overcome nature as, 84–85 cleanliness as, 49, 82–83 green segmentation, 85 nature, 51 performance/status as, 49–50, 85–86 problem solving/fatalistic as, 50, 84 risk taking/security as, 50, 84 tradition/change as, 50, 83–84 Enviropreneurial marketing, 85 Episodic memory, 317 Equity see Brand equity Ethan Allen Galleries, 137 Ethical issues missing information as, 297–298 product satisfaction/ dissatisfaction, 632 related to marketing products, 68 self-concept and, 425 Ethnic subcultures, 147, 150–151 African American, 147, 151–156 Arab Americans, 168–169 Asian Americans, 162–166 Asian-Indian Americans, 168 consumption and, 152 definition, 150 Hispanics, 156–162 major ethnic subcultures, 150 Native American, 166–167 Etiquette, 59–60 Evaluation process, 630–633 Evaluative criteria, 521, 556–561, 565 criteria used, 559 individual judgment and, 561–564 marketing strategy and, 563–564 measurement of, 559–561 nature of, 557–559 for organizational decisions, 680–681 relative importance of, 560–561 tangible/intangible factors, 557 Event marketing, 155 Evoked set, 522 E-waste, 627 Executional factors, 369–370 Expectation bias, 292 Expectations, 292–293, 631 contrast and, 284–285 Experian Information Systems, 429 Experiencers, 433–434 Experimentation, 738–739 Explicit memory, 320 Exposure defined, 275 measures of, 742–743 selective, 275–278 voluntary, 279 Extended decision making, 241, 501 Extended/limited family, 46–47 Extended self, 421 possessions and, 421–423 External influences, 35 consumer behavior, 24–25 External information searches, 520 consumer characteristics, 537–538 costs vs benefits of, 536–538 factors affecting, 537 market characteristics, 536 product characteristics, 537 External reference price, 596, 725 External validity, 739 Extinction, 328 Eye-tracking, 737, 743 f Facebook, 6, 13, 125 Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, 134 Families see also Households limited/extended, 46–47 traditional, 185 Family branding, 341 Family decision making conflict resolution and, 201–202 defined, 198 family purchase roles and, 198–201 marketing strategy and, 202–203 Family household, 185 Family life cycle see Household life cycle (HLC) Family purchase roles conflict resolution, 201–202 decisionmaker(s), 198 determinants of, 200–201 influencer(s), 198 information gatherer(s), 198 initiator(s), 198 nature of, 198–200 purchaser(s), 198 teens, 201 user(s), 198 FCC, 707 FDA, 707 Fear appeals, 401–403 Feature, 385 Federal Express, 17 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 89, 223, 237, 280, 298, 707, 720 Federal Trade Commission Act, 709 Federal Trade Commission Privacy Protection Framework, 717 Fiat, 84 Figure-ground, 295 Firmographics activities and objectives and, 685–686 industry category and, 687 location and, 686–687 macrosegmentation and, 687–688 organization composition and, 687 size, 685 Firm outcomes customer satisfaction, 22 product position, 21 sales and profits, 21 Fisher-Price, 510 Five-Factor Model, 367 Flashbulb memory, 317 Focus group interviews, 735–736 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 8, 725 Food and Wines from France, 228 Ford Motor, 126, 220, 299 Foreign market, considerations in approaching, 65–68 Format, 284 Forrester Research, 429, 584 Frail recluses, 118 Frontline employees, 636 Full nest I, 191–192 Full nest II, 194–195 g Gay/lesbian consumers, 78 communication issues for, 94 marketing to, 91–95 product issues for, 93–94 Gender, 96 Gender-based marketing, 78, 95–100 see also Women marketing communications and, 99 market segmentation and, 97–98 product strategy and, 98 retail strategy and, 100 Gender identity, 96 Gender roles, 77, 96 General Foods, 293 General Mills, 158, 474 General Motors, 273, 340 Generation see Age cohorts; Cohort analysis Subject Index Generation X, 121–124, 193, 194 African American, 154 Generation X (Gen X), 421, 590 Generation Y, 124–125, 188, 190, 193, 590 Generation Z, 125–128, 195 Generic problem recognition, 510, 511 Geo-demographic analysis see PRIZM (geo-demographic analysis) Geographic area, as homogeneous/ heterogeneous, 65–66 Geographic concentration, 165 Gerontographics, 118 Gift giving, 482–483, 538 Gillette, 237, 238, 327 Global agnostics, 40 Global citizens, 40 Global cultures, 60–62 youth culture, 61–62 Global demographics, 62–64 Global dreamers, 40 Globalization cross-cultural marketing, 39 cultural values and, 39–40 world citizens, 40 Global localization, 64 Global marketing international lifestyles, 437–438 translation problems in, 53 Glocalization, 64 Goal framing, 407 Goodyear, 236 Google, 94, 527, 532–533, 688 Government regulation, 708 Gratification postponed vs immediate, 80–81 sensual, 80 Gratification/abstinence, 80 Gratitude, 372–373 Green marketing, 78, 85, 88–89 Greenwashing, 89 Groups see also Reference group influence aspiration reference, 217 attraction in, 217 brand community, 220–222 communications within, 229–237 defined, 216 dissociative reference, 217 membership in, 216 online community and social network, 217 primary, 217 reference, 216–217 secondary, 217 social ties to, 217 type of contact in, 217 types of, 216–224 GTE Wireless, 341 Guanxi, 58, 687 Guerrilla marketing, 237 h Habitual decision making, 500 see also Nominal decision making Hallmark, 86, 155 Hanes Corporation, 559 Hard Candy, 233–234, 237 Hard work/leisure, 52, 82 Harley-Davidson, 95, 167, 220, 343 Healthy hermits, 118 Healthy indulgers, 118, 119 Heloise, 497 Hemispheric lateralization, 287–288 Hershey’s, 337–338 Hewlett-Packard, 154, 675, 689 HGTV, 83 High-impact zones, 284 High-involvement learning, 320, 322 High-involvement purchases, 233 postpurchase dissonance and, 622–623 Hispanics, 18 acculturation, language, and generational influences, 157–160 communications, 160–161 defined, 156 first-generation adults, 157 marketing to, 160–162 products, 162 retailing to, 162 second-generation adults, 157 teens, 158–159 third-generation adults, 157 HLC/occupational category matrix, 197 Hollingshead Index of Social Position (ISP), 136–137 Home Depot, 162 Homosexuals see Gay/lesbian consumers Honda Motor Co., 89, 165, 343 Household life cycle (HLC), 186–196, 538 delayed full nest I, 194 empty nest I, 193–194 empty nest II, 195 777 full nest I, 191–192 full nest II, 194–195 marketing strategy based on, 196–197 middle-aged single, 193 older single, 195–196 single I, 186, 190–191 single parent I, 192–193 single parent II, 195 young couples, no children, 191 Households family, 185 influence of, 184–185 nonfamily, 185 single-person, 183 types of, 185–186 H&R Block, 340 Human factors research, 509 Human Rights Campaign Foundation, 93 Humorous appeals, 403–404 Hunter-Miller Group, 154 Husband-dominant family decisions, 199 Husband, wife, and child joint decisions, 199 Hybrid ads, 277 Hyundai, 340 i IBM, 12, 93, 154, 673 Iconic rote learning, 325, 327 Ideal self-concept, 420 Identification influence, 225 IKEA, 93, 592, 621 Imagery, 316 user, 369 Implicit memory, 320 Impulse buying/purchase, 601–602 Inactive problems, 504 see also Consumer problems Income, 114 decision-making influence, 201 subjective discretionary income, 115 Incongruity, 294 Independent self-concept, 420, 427 Independent variable, 738 Index of Social Position (ISP), 136–137 Indirect appeal, 362 Individual characteristics ability as, 286–287 motivation as, 286 traits as, 290–292 778 Subject Index Individual/collective orientation, 44–45, 86 Individual depth interviews, 735–736 Individualized decisions, 199 Individual judgment accuracy of, 561–562 evaluative criteria and, 561–564 marketing strategy and, 563–564 surrogate indicators and, 562 Individual outcomes injurious consumption, 22–23 needs satisfaction, 22 Industry category, 687 Inert set, 521 Inferences, 296 see also Consumer inferences Influencer(s), 198 Influentials, 234–235 Infomercials, 279 Information accuracy of, 719–722 adequacy of, 722–724 in conflict resolution, 201–202 missing information, 297–298 sources of, 524–534 Informational influence, 224–225 Information gatherer(s), 198 Information overload, 286, 528 Information processing consumer decision making, 274 guidelines of CARU, 709 learning, and memory, 314 Information quantity, 286 Information search alternative characteristics for, 524 appropriate alternatives for, 521–524 consumer characteristics and, 537–538 evaluative criteria for, 521 external search, 520, 534–535 internal search, 520 internet, 526 on Internet, 526–529 marketing strategies and, 529–532 nature of, 520 ongoing, 520 for organizational purchase decisions, 679–680 product characteristics and, 537 situation characteristics and, 538 type of information sought, 521–524 Information seekers, 419 Informed individuals, ING, 17, 642 In-home shopping, 583 Initiator(s), 198 Injurious consumption, 22–23 Innovations categories of, 239–242 characteristics of adopters, 244–245 continuous innovation, 239–240 defined, 238 diffusion process, 242–245 discontinuous, 241–242 dynamically continuous, 240 factors affecting spread of, 242–244 marketing strategies and diffusion of, 245–247 Innovativeness, 624 Innovators, 244–245, 431 In-store influences outlet atmosphere, 605–607 point-of-purchase materials and, 603–604 price reductions and, 604–605 sales personnel, 608–609 stockouts and, 607 unplanned purchases, 601–603 Instrumental materialism, 52 Instrumental motives, 554 Instrumental performance, 632 Instrumental training, 205 Intel, 299 Intensity, 281–282 Interactive ads, 277 Intercept strategy, 541 Interdependent self-concept, 420, 427 Interestingness, 285 Internal influences, 271 consumer behavior, 25–26 Internal reference prices, 296, 596 Internal search, 520 Internal validity, 739 International marketing see Global marketing Internet see also Web sites blogs on, 238 communities on, 217 creating buzz on, 237–238 information searches on, 526–529 marketing and children, 714–715 as multi-channel strategy, 587–590 online atmospheres, 605 organizational decision process and, 684 search engine optimization (SEO), 531–532 viral marketing on, 238 Internet retailing, 584–586 barriers to, 586 characteristics of shoppers, 584–586 converting visitors to buyers, 588–589 size of, 584 top categories, 584 Interpretation, 275 affective, 290 cognitive, 289 consumer inferences and, 296–298 individual characteristics and, 290–293 measures of, 744 situational characteristics and, 293 stimulus characteristics and, 293–296 Interpreting images, 296–297 Interviews depth, 735–736 focus group, 735–736 individual depth, 735–736 personal, 738 Intuition, 507 Involvement, 363 IRI/TNS, 85 iRobot, 83 Isolation, 284 ITunes, 94 j Jaguar, 155, 368 Japan, business etiquette in, 59–60 JCPenney, 588, 591 Jewish subcultures, 172 Jockey, 375 Johnson, S.C., Johnston & Murphy, 623 Joint decisions, 199 Judgment see Individual judgment Just noticeable differences (j.n.d.), 295, 562 k Kellogg’s, 56–57, 68, 383–384, 506 KFC, 64 Kickstarter, 497 Kimberly-Clark, 194 Kmart, 86, 587 Knowledge, 292 Knowledge structure, 317 Kraft Foods, 186, 192, 236, 298 Subject Index l Labeling, 302–303 Laddering, 362 Laggards, 245 Lands’ End, 471, 607 Late majority, 245 Latent motives, 361 Latinos see Hispanics Leaders see Opinion leaders Lead users, 688, 689 Learning, 313, 314 cognitive, 325–326 conditioning and, 321–323 to generalize and differentiate, 326–327 high-involvement, 320 iconic rote, 325, 327 importance, 329 knowledge and, 292 low-involvement, 320 memory and retrieval, 327–336 memory interference and, 335–336 memory’s role in, 315–320 message involvement, 329–330 mood, 330 nature of, 314–315 operant conditioning and, 323–325 organizational, 691–692 punishment, 331 reinforcement and, 330 repetition and, 331–334 response environment and, 336 stimulus discrimination and, 326 stimulus generalization and, 327 strength of, 329–335 theories of, 322, 327 vicarious, 325–326 Learn & Master Guitar, 124 Lesbians see Gay/lesbian consumers Levi-Strauss, 49, 59, 61, 89, 119, 137– 138, 161, 235, 299, 343 Lexicographic decision rules, 568–569 Lexicon, 299 Lifestyle, 271, 427 general vs specific schemes for, 429–430 measurement of, 428 nature of, 427–430 self-concept and, 26–27 VALS and PRIZM, 429 Likert scales, 422, 560, 742 Limited decision making, 500–501 Limited/extended family, 87 Local mobile search, 532–534 Location, organizational culture and, 686–687 Logo design/redesign, 299–300 Logo development, 299–300 Long-term memory (LTM), 315 retrieval from, 319–320 schemas and, 317–319 scripts and, 319 L’Oréal, 155 Lower Americans, 134–136 Lower class, 129 Lower-lower class, 135–136 Lower-upper class, 130–131 Low-involvement learning, 320, 322 Loyalty, 694 m Macrosegmentation, 687 Macy’s, 590 Mail surveys, 738 Maintenance rehearsal, 315 Maintenance strategy, 539 Makers, 434 Mall/factory outlet shoppers, 15 Manifest motives, 361 Mannequins, 476 Manufacturer suggested retail price (MSRP), 296 Market analysis company as component of, 12 competitors as component of, 12–13 components of, 11–13 conditions as component of, 13 consumers as component of, 12 Marketers, 5, 313 Marketing see also Children, marketing to to adults, 716–725 to African Americans, 154–156 ambush, 295 to Asian Americans, 165–166 brand communities and, 221–222 cause-related, 89–92 to children, 207, 708–716 consumption subcultures and, 219 customer experience, enviropreneurial, 85 event, 155 evolution, gay and lesbian consumers, 91–95 gender-based, 95–100 geographic concentration, 165 779 green marketing, 78, 85, 88–89 guerrilla, 237 to Hispanics, 160–162 online communities and social networks and, 222–224 permission-based, 279 relationship, 643 viral, 238 Marketing communications, 18–19 see also Advertising/advertisements adequacy of consumer information and, 722–724 advertising and values and, 718–719 corrective, 328–329, 721–722 gender and, 99 information accuracy and, 719–722 translation problems in, 53 Marketing ethics see Ethical issues Marketing mix, 10, 17 Marketing strategies, 17–20 acceptance, 542 advertising, 235 capture, 540–541 committed customers and, 637 communications and, 18–19 consumer behavior and, 8–11 cross-cultural, 64–68 cultural factors affecting, 38 diffusion process and, 245–247 disrupt, 539–540 dissatisfied customers, 634–636 distribution and, 20 evaluative criteria and, 563–564 family decision making and, 202–203 green marketing, 88–89 household life cycle and, 196–197 individual judgments and, 563–564 information search and, 529–532 information search patterns, 539–542 intercept, 541 maintenance, 539 Maslow’s need hierarchy and, 354–355 mobile search, 533–534 motivation conflict, 363–364 motivation theory and, 360–365 multiple motives and, 362 opinion leadership, 235–238 organizational buyer segments, 692–695 perception and, 298–303 personality and, 368–370 780 Subject Index Marketing strategies—Cont preference, 541–542 price and, 19–20 problem recognition and, 506–513 product and, 17–18 product disposition and, 628–630 reference group influence and, 227–229 regulatory focus and, 364–365 repeat purchasers/committed customers and, 642–645 service and, 20 situational influences and, 486–489 social stratification and, 135–136 values and, 88–100 word-of-mouth communication and, 235–238 Market mavens, 234–235 Market segmentation, 13–17, 203, 407, 746 attitudes and, 407–409 attractiveness worksheet, 16 attractive segments to serve and, 16–17 boomer market, 122 consumer segments, 152 customer needs and, 15 description of each group, 16 diffusion process and, 245–246 female market segments, 97–98 product-related needs sets and, 14 steps in, 13–17 Market segment, defined, 13 Mars, 53 Masculine/feminine, 47–48, 78, 88 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 354–355 marketing strategies and, 355 Mass communication information flows, 232 MasterCard, 18 Material/nonmaterial, 52, 81 Mature market, 118 Maybelline, 64, 66 McDonald’s, 49, 64–65, 154, 165, 192, 299, 337 McGuire’s psychological motives affective motives and, 356 cognitive motives and, 356 cognitive preservation motives, 356 growth motives, 356 preservation-oriented motives, 356 Means-end, 362 Media exposure, 276 Media strategy, 301–302 Mediation, 206 Media usage, African Americans and, 152–154 Meishi, 60 Memory, 275, 313 echoic, 335 episodic, 317 explicit and implicit, 320 flashbulb, 317 forgetting over time, 328 interference, 335–336 learning and, 315–320 long-term, 315, 317–320 nature of, 314–315 retrieval from, 327–336 schematic, 317–318 semantic, 317 short-term, 315–317 Mercedes-Benz, 27 Mere exposure, 394 Mere ownership effect, 422 Message framing, 407 Messages, 406–407 see also Communications nonverbal components, 407 one-sided vs two-sided, 406 positive vs negative framing, 407 Metagoal, 552 MetLife, 119, 168 Microsoft, 124, 130, 231, 337, 583 Middle-aged single, 193 Middle Americans, 132–134 Middle class, 129, 132 upward-pull strategy for, 132, 133 Miller Brewing Company, 134 Mind the Gap-The Real You and the Ideal You, 426 Minigroup interviews, 735 Mobile marketing, children and, 713–714 Mobile search, 532–533 marketing strategy, 533 mobile and mobile apps, 608 omni-channel shoppers, 590–591 push and pull strategies, 535 Modeling, 205, 325–326 need for, 360 Modern gender orientations, 96 Modified rebuy, 677 Moët & Chandon, 59 Momentary conditions, 484–485 Monochronic time perspective, 54–55 Mont Blanc, 56, 59 Montgomery Ward, 86 Moods, 483–484 Morgan Stanley, 472 Morpheme, 299 Most valuable customers, 694 Motivation, 286, 354 consumer involvement and, 363 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 354–355 McGuire’s psychological motives, 355–360 nature of, 354–360 Motivation conflict approach–approach conflict, 363 approach–avoidance conflict, 363 avoidance-avoidance conflict, 363–364 marketing strategies based on, 363–364 Motivation research techniques, 737 Motivation theory, marketing strategy, 360–365 Motives, 354 affective growth, 359–360 affective preservation, 358–359 cognitive growth, 357–358 cognitive preservation, 356 consummatory, 554 instrumental, 554 latent, 361, 362 manifest, 361 marketing strategies based on multiple, 362 organizational, 692 prevention-focused, 364 promotion-focused, 364 purchase, 361–362 Movement, 282 MSN, 527 MTV, 125 Multiattribute attitude model, 385–387, 408 Multi-channel shoppers, 588 Multi-channel shopping, 592 Multi-channel strategy, Internet as, 587–590 Multigenerational family, 187 Multi-item indexes, 136 Multitrait approach, 366–367 Music, 479, 605 Muslim subculture, 172–173 Muting, 276 Subject Index n Nabisco, 327 NameLab, 299 Nate Berkus, 519 National Advertising Division (NAD) of Council of Better Business Bureaus, 709 Native Americans, 166–167 Nature, 51 Need(s), 360 Maslow’s hierarchy of, 354–355 satisfaction of, 66 Need for cognition (NFC), 367–368 Need satisfaction, as individual outcome, 22 Needs sets customers with similar, 15 mall/factory outlet shoppers, 15 product-related, 14 Net Generation, 125–126 Net Promoter Score (NPS), 640 New task, 677 New York-Presbyterian Hospital (NYP), 637 Nextel, 400 Nike, 28, 60, 66, 95, 167, 234, 319, 337, 369, 383, 423, 424, 526, 718 Nodes, 318 Nokia, 62 Nominal decision making, 500 Non-Christian subcultures Buddhists, 173 Jewish, 172 Muslim, 172–173 Noncomparative rating scale, 741 Noncompensatory decision rules, 569 Nonfamily household, 185 Nonfocused attention hemispheric lateralization and, 287–288 subliminal stimuli and, 288–289 Nonprofits, Nonsatisfaction, 631 Nonverbal communications, 39 agreements and, 58 conclusions on, 60 cultural variations in, 53–60 etiquette and, 59–60 factors influencing, 54 relationships and, 57–58 space and, 56 symbols and, 56–57 things, 59 time and, 54–56 Nonverbal components, 407 Normative influence, 225, 229 Norms, 41 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 13 Nouveaux riches, 131 Nutritional Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), 8, 722 o Objectification, 357 Observation, 736 Occupation, 112 Odors, 606 Office Depot, 89, 628 Older single, 195–196 Omni-channel shoppers, 590–591 One-on-one interviews, 735 One-sided messages, 406 Ongoing search, 520 Online atmospheres, 605 Online communities, 217, 222–224 Online marketing, 723 Online privacy concerns, 588, 715–716 Online shoppers see also Internet retailing characteristics of, 584–586 influences on brand choice, 601 mobile and mobile apps, 608 unplanned purchases, 601–603 website functioning and requirements, 607–608 Online social networks, 222 identifying consumer problems, 508 Online surveys, 738 Operant conditioning, 323–325, 327 consumer learning by, 323 shaping in purchase behavior, 324 Opinion leaders, 232 characteristics of, 234–235 likelihood of seeking, 233 marketing strategy and, 235–238 market mavens, influentials, e-fluentials, 234–235 situations for, 233–234 word-of-mouth (WOM) and, 233–234 Opportunity costs, 607 Orbitz, 94 781 Organization(s), 27 as component of market analysis, 12 industry category of, 687 Organizational buyer segments, marketing strategy and, 692–695 Organizational buying behavior, 671, 675, 694 Organizational culture, 684–685 external factors influencing, 685–689 firmographics and, 685–688 internal factors, 689–692 learning and, 691–692 local culture and government and, 688 motives and emotions and, 692 organizational values and, 689–690 perception and, 690–691 reference groups and, 688–689 Organizational purchase process buyer response, 677 decision-making units and, 674–676 evaluation and selection and, 680–681 information search and, 679–680 Internet’s role in, 684 overview of, 675 problem recognition and, 678–679 purchase and decision implementation, 681–682 purchase situation and, 676–677 steps in, 678–683 usage and postpurchase evaluation and, 682–683 Organizational values, 689–690 Organization composition, 687 Other-oriented values competitive/cooperative, 48–49, 88 diversity/uniformity as, 49, 86–87 extended/limited family as, 46–47, 87 individual/collective, 44–45, 86 masculine/feminine, 47–48, 88 youth/age as, 45–46, 87–88 Otis Elevator, 682 Outcomes firm, 21–22 individual, 22–23 society, 23–24 Outlet atmosphere, 605–607 Outlet choice location and size, 597–598 perceived risk and, 598–599 Outlet image, 591–594 782 Subject Index p Package design and labeling, 302–303 Packaging, 627 Partner buyers, 694 Peak experience, 422 People meters, 742–743 Perceived fit, 299 Perceived risk, 538, 598–599 Perception, 274, 503, 621 attention and, 275 exposure and, 275–279 marketing strategy and, 298–303 nature of, 274–275 organizational culture and, 690–691 Perceptual defenses, 275 Perceptual mapping, 339, 559–560 Perceptual relativity, 289 Performance/status, 49–50, 85–86 Permission-based e-mail (PBE), 530 Permission-based marketing, 279 Personal interviews, 738 Personality, 354, 365–368 consumer ethnocentrism, 367 family purchase roles and, 198–202 Five-Factor Model, 367 marketing strategy and, 368–370 multitrait approach to, 366–367 need for cognition, 367–368 need for uniqueness, 368 single-trait approach to, 367–368 Personal relationships, 673 Personal sales strategies, 228 Personal selling, 236–237 Personal space, 56 Pew Hispanic Center, 157 P&G’s Swiffer line, 497 Phonemes, 299 Physical environment outcomes, 23 Physical surroundings, 475–480 aromas and, 478–479 color, 478 crowding and, 479–480 music and, 479 store atmosphere and, 477 Physiological measures, 737 Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, 203, 709 Pinterest, Planalytics, 471 Point-of-Purchase Advertising International (POPAI), 601 Point-of-purchase (P-O-P) materials, 603–604 Polaroid, 51–52 Polychronic time perspective, 55 Population, 735 see also Demographics Population size and distribution, 110–111 Porsche, 429 Position, 283–284 Possessions, extended self and, 421 Postponed gratification/immediate gratification, 53, 80–81 Postpurchase consumer behavior, 622 Postpurchase dissonance, 622–623 methods to reduce, 623 Postpurchase evaluation, 682–683 Pottery Barn, 93 Power distance, 49–50 Pragmatic implications, 720–721 Pre-depression generation, 118 Preference strategy, 541–542 Presto, 187 Prevention-focused motives, 364 Price-perceived quality, 296 Price premium, 639 Price reductions, 604 Prices/pricing, 19–20, 747 advertising decisions, 596–597 external reference price, 596, 725 internal reference price, 596 price reductions, 604–605 promotional deals and, 604–605 reference, 596 Primary data collection see also Data collection methods issues and methods in, 734–735 sampling, 734–735 Primary groups, 217 Private self-concep, 420 PRIZM (geo-demographic analysis), 429, 434–436 marketing strategy application, 436 sample segments, 435–436 social and life stage groups, 434–435 Problem analysis, 509 Problem recognition, 502 approaches to activating, 502–503, 512 desire to resolve problems, 504 generic, 510, 511 marketing strategies and, 506–513 nature of, 502–504 nonmarketing factors, 506 organizational decision process, 678–679 process of, 501–505 selective, 510, 511 suppression of, 513 timing of, 512 uncontrollable determinants of, 505–506 Problem solving/fatalistic, 50–51, 84 Procter & Gamble, 66 Product(s), 17–18, 749 affordability of, 67 for African Americans, 154–155 communication of, 67 disposition of, 627–630 distribution, political, legal structures for, 66 economic and social risks, 598 ethical implication of marketing, 68 extended self and, 421 for gay and lesbian consumers, 93–94 gender typing and, 98 for Hispanics, 162 level of involvement in, 363 needs sets and, 14–15 nonuse of, 625–627 postpurchase dissonance and, 622–623 unplanned purchases, 601–603 use of, 624–625 Product analysis, 507–508 Product characteristics, 537 Product development, 407–409 multiattribute attitude model in, 408 Product involvement, 286, 499 Product issues, 724–725 Product liability laws, 625 Product nonuse, 625–627 Product placement, 273, 276 Product positioning, 338–339, 746–747 brand image and, 337–341 as firm outcomes, 21 perceptual mapping, 559–560 perceptual mapping and, 339 self-concept and, 424–425 Product-related needs sets, 14 Product repositioning, 340–341 Product sampling, 235–236 Product use, 621, 624–625 Profit as measure of outcome, 21 repeat purchasers/committed customers and, 639–642 Program context effects, 484 Program involvement, 287 Projective techniques, 362, 559, 737 Promotional deals, 604–605 Subject Index Promotion-focused motives, 364 Promotion strategy, 748–749 Protestant subcultures, 171 Proximity, 294 Prudential, 300 Psychographics, 428 see also Lifestyle Psychological meaning, 289 Psychological motives (McGuire’s), 355–360 Pulsing, 333 Punishment, 331 Purchase(s), 609 see also Organizational purchase process brand-loyal, 500 family roles in, 198–202 high-involvement, 233 impulse, 601–602 latent and manifest motives in, 361 level of involvement in, 363 motives for, 361–362 repeat, 500 unplanned, 601–603 Purchase behavior in-store purchase behavior, 602 process of shaping in, 324 Purchase evaluation customer satisfaction and, 630–633 determinants of, 631–633 dissatisfaction responses and, 633–636 process of, 630–631 Purchase involvement, 498–499 Purchase motives, 361–362 Purchaser(s), 198 Purchase situations, 473–474, 676–677 modified rebuy, 677 new task, 677 straight rebuy, 677 Purchasing power parity (PPP), 64 Push and pull strategies, 535 q Quaker Oats, 385 Quality signals, 296 Questionnaire design, 739–740 Quirky, 497 Quirky Bandits, 498 QVC Network, 289 r Rank ordering scales, 560 Rational thought, 288 Reasoning, analytical, 326 Recency planning, 335 Recognition tests, 744 Reebok, 368 Reference group influence advertising strategies, 228–229 on consumption process, 224–227 consumption situation determinants, 228 degree of, 226–227 identification influence, 225 informational influence, 224–225 marketing strategies based on, 227–229 nature of, 224–225 normative influence, 225 personal sales strategies, 228 Reference group infrastructure, 689 Reference groups, 216, 217 aspiration, 217 dissociative, 217 organizational behavior and, 688–689 Reference price, 296, 596 Referent state, 296 Referrals, 639 Regional subcultures, 174–175 Regulation, 27 children’s online privacy issues, 715–716 consumer privacy, 716–717 corrective advertising and, 721–722 of marketing aimed at children, 708–711 pricing issues, 725 product issues, 724–725 Regulatory focus theory, 364–365 Regulatory policy, Reinforcement learning and, 330 need for, 359 Relational exchanges, 692 Relationship marketing, 643 key elements of, 643 loyalty, 694 Relationships, 57–58 Religious/secular, 53, 79–80 Religious subcultures, 169–173 born-again Christians, 171–172 Buddhists, 173 Christian, 169–172 Jewish, 172 Muslim, 172–173 Protestants, 171 Roman Catholic, 170–171 783 RE/MAX, 237 Reminder purchase, 601 Repeat purchasers, 637 marketing strategy and, 642–645 profit and, 639–642 Repetition, 281 advertising recall, 333 brand awareness and, 332 Repositioning, 336 see also Product repositioning Research in Motion, 299 Research methods see Consumer research methods Response environment, 336 Retail advertising, 595–597 Retail attraction model, 597 Retailer brands, 594 Retail gravitation model, 597 Retailing strategy to African Americans, 156 to Hispanics, 162 perceived risk, 598 personal selling, 236–237 technology in, 581–582 Retail outlets, 583 brands and, 585 consumer characteristics and, 598–600 image of, 591–594 location and size and, 597–598 retail advertising and, 595–597 retail attraction model, 597 retailer brands and, 594 retail gravitation model, 597 selection of, 591–598 Retail scene in-home shopping, 583 Internet-based, 584–586 mobile omni-channel strategy, 590–591 multi-channel strategy and, 587–590 overview of, 583 store-based, 586–587 Retail strategy, 298–299 gender-based, 100 Retrieval cues, 336 Retrieval failure, 328 Revlon, 17, 342, 369 Reynolds, R.J., 135 RFID, 582 Rhetorical figures, 294 Risk taking/security, 50, 84 Ritual situations, 485–486 Role specialization, 200 784 Subject Index Roman Catholic subculture, 170–171 Roper Starch Worldwide, 235, 437 Rub-off effect, 327 s Saab, 220 Sales consumer-to-consumer, 629 as measure of outcome, 21 personal sales strategies, 228 Sales personnel, 608–609 Sample size, 735 Sampling, 235, 734–735 Sampling frame, 735 Sampling method, 735 Sanctions, 41 Satisfaction see Customer satisfaction; Dissatisfaction Scarborough Research, 109 Schema, 317 Schematic memory, 317–318 Script, 319 Search engine optimization (SEO), 531–532 Secondary data, 734 Secondary groups, 217 Secular society, 169 Seeding, 235 Segmentation, 673 Selective exposure, 275–278 Selective problem recognition, 510, 511 Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) and AdSAM, 388 Self-concept, 271, 420–426 actual, 420 brand image influence, 424 ideal, 420 interdependent/independent, 420–421 lifestyle and, 26–27 marketing ethics and, 425 measurement of, 423 possessions and extended self, 421 private, 420 product positioning and, 424–425 social, 420 Self-oriented values, 43, 78–82 active/passive approach as, 51, 82 hard work/leisure activities as, 52, 82 materialism/nonmaterialism as, 52, 81 postponed/immediate gratification as, 53, 80–81 religious/secular approach as, 53, 79–80 sensual gratification/abstinence as, 51–52, 80 Self-referencing, 330 Semantic differential scale, 560, 741–742 Semantic meaning, 289, 299 Semantic memory, 317 SeniorNet, 120 Sensation seekers, 419 Sensory discrimination, 295, 562 Sensual gratification/abstinence, 51–52, 80 Service, 20 Service failure, 632 Servicescape, 477, 605 Sex, 96 Shaping, 324 Shazam, 519 Shiseido Co., 45 Shoppertainment, 581 Shopping see also Internet retailing in-home, 583 multi-channel, 592 Shopping bots, 529 Shopping orientations, 538, 599–600 Short-term memory (STM) elaborative activities in, 316–317 imagery, 316 limited-capacity of, 315 as short-lived, 315 Simulating opinion, 235 Single I stage, 186, 190–191 Single-item indexes, 136 Single Mothers by Choice, 195 Single parent I, 192–193 Single parent II, 195 Single-trait approach, 367–368 Sin products, 79, 135 Situational characteristics, 293 Situational factors clutter, 287 program involvement, 287 Situational influences, 472 antecedent states and, 483–485 communication situation and, 472–473 consumer choice, 572–573 consumption behavior and, 475–485 disposition situation and, 474–475 marketing strategy and, 486–489 nature of, 472–475 physical surroundings and, 475–480 purchase situations and, 473–474 social surroundings and, 480–482 task definition and, 482–483 temporal perspectives and, 482 unplanned purchases, 603 usage situation and, 474 Situation characteristics, 538 Size, 280–281 Skeptics, 91 Slotting allowances, 280 Smart banners, 286 Smith & Wesson, 98 Social class, 128, 139 Coleman-Rainwater hierarchy, 130 measurement of, 136–137 Socially concerned, 91 Social marketing, Social media, 6, 230–231, 530 Social networks, 222–224 Social self-concept, 420 Social status, 538 Social stratification, 128–129 behavior and, 128 marketing strategy and, 137–140 Social structure lower Americans, 134–136 middle Americans, 132–134 upper Americans, 129–132 Social surroundings, 480–482, 538 Social welfare, 23–24 Societal rank, 128 Society outcomes economic outcomes, 23 physical environment outcomes, 23 social welfare, 23–24 Sony, 60, 62, 121, 223 Sony Ericsson, 237 Source credibility, 398 Sources, celebrity, 369 Space, 56 Spending categories, 61 Spillover sales, 595 Spokescharacters, 400 Sponsorship, 400 SpotSynch, 519 Sprint, 636 Starbucks, 5, 19, 42, 477 Starch scores, 744 State Farm, 165 Status crystallization, 129 Stepfamily, 185 Still-frame ads, 277 Subject Index Stimulation, 235 need for, 358 Stimulus characteristics, 293–296 changes as, 295–296 organization as, 294–295 traits as, 293–294 Stimulus discrimination, 326 Stimulus factors, 280–289 color and movement as, 282–283 contrast and expectations as, 284–285 format as, 284 information quantity as, 286 intensity as, 281–282 interestingness as, 285 isolation as, 284 position as, 283–284 size as, 280–281 visuals as, 282 Stimulus generalization, 327 Stimulus organization, 294 Stitch Fix, 552 Stock keeping units (SKUs), 298 Stockouts, 607 Store atmosphere, 477, 605–606 Store-based retailing, 586–587 Store brands, 594 Store image, 337, 591 Straight rebuy, 677 Strategic Business Insight (SBI), 430 Strivers, 433 Subcultures see also Ethnic subcultures; specific subcultures consumption subcultures, 219 definition, 148 family purchase roles, 200–201 market behaviors and, 148 marketing and, 219 nature of, 148–149 regional subcultures, 174–175 Subjective discretionary income (SDI), 115 Subliminal stimuli, 288–289 Substitution costs, 607 Subway, 384 Sunbeam, 561 Sunkist Growers, 338 Supermarkets, 206–207 Surrogate indicator, 562 Surveys, 737–738 Survivors, 434 Switching costs, 637 Symbolic performance, 632 Symbols, 56–57 t u Target, 12, 86, 155, 224, 334, 594 Target Australia, 37 Target market, 16–17 Target U.S., 37 Task definition, 482–483, 538 gift giving, 482–483 Technology, 109 see also Internet consumer use of, 429–430 e-waste and, 627 in retailing strategy, 581–582 Ted Baker, 581 Teenagers see Adolescents; Youth culture Telefutura, 160 Telemundo, 160 Teleological need, 358 Telephone surveys, 738 Temporal perspectives, 482, 538 Terminal materialism, 52 Terms and conditions, 682 Testimonial ad, 398 TGI Friday’s, 174 Theater tests, 744 Things, 59 Thinkers, 433 Third-party endorsements, 398 Thomas’ English Muffins, 551 Tiffany’s, 93 Time meanings in use of, 55–56 monochronic time perspective, 54–55 polychronic time perspective, 55 TiVo, 276 Top-of-mind awareness, 319 Toro, 339 Total product, 10–11 Toyota, 299, 343, 353 Traditional family, 185 Traditional orientations, 96 Tradition/change, 50, 83–84 Traits, 290–294 Transactional exchanges, 692 Transaction costs, 607 Tumblr, Tweens, 127–128 Twitter, 6, 13, 238–239 Two-sided messages, 406 Two-stage decision process, 680 Two-step flow of communication, 232 Typographics, 299–300 Umbrella branding, 341 Underperforming buyers, 694 Unilever, 67 United Airlines, 237, 635 University of Pennsylvania, 156 Univision, 160 Unplanned purchases, 601–603 Upper class, 129 Upper-lower class, 134–135 Upper-middle class, 131–132 Upper-upper class, 129–130 UPS, 17 Upward-pull strategy, 132, 133 Usage situations, 563, 682–683 USDA, 707 Use innovativeness, 624 User(s), 198 User imagery, 369 U.S Public Health Service, 24 Utilitarian appeals, 405–406 Utilitarian consumers, 419 Utilitarian need, 358 785 v VALS system, 429–434 segments, 431–434 VALS motivational types, 431 Value-expressive appeals, 405 Values, 39 advertising and, 718–719 consumer purchases and, 66 environment-oriented, 82–86 marketing strategy and, 88–100 marketing to children, 712–713 organizational, 689–690 Self-oriented, 78–82 traditional, current, and emerging, 79, 83–84 Verbal communication systems, 53 see also Communications Verizon, 341 Vicarious learning, 325–326 View-throughs, 530 Viral marketing, 238 Virgin Group, 124 Virgin Mobile, 94 Visuals, 282 Vodafone, 50 Voluntary exposure, 279 Voluntary simplicity, 81 Volvo, 124, 238 786 Subject Index w Walgreens, 155 Walmart, 47, 86, 135, 162, 166, 594 Walt Disney, 154 Warranties, 296 Washington Redskins, 42 Web sites see also Internet retailing design and interaction, 633 functioning and requirements of, 607–608 social networks, 222–224 Wells Fargo, 154, 165 Western Unions, 166 Wharton School Publishing, 236 White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPS), 171 Wife-dominant decisions, 199 Window displays, 581 Women female market segments, 97–98 gender-based marketing, 95–100 marketing communications directed to, 99 product strategy for, 98 retail strategy for, 100 Word-of-mouth (WOM) communication, 229–231 buzz as, 237–238 customer satisfaction and, 634–635 marketing strategy and, 235–238 negative experiences, 231 net promoter score, 640 online social media and, 230–231 opinion leadership and, 233–234 Working class, 132–134 Working-class aristocrats, 134 Working memory, 315 World Bank, 64 World Health Organization (WHO), 40 Wrigley’s, 488 Wyndham Hotels, 93 y Yahoo!, 77, 94, 161, 527 Yankee Group, 278 Young couples, 191 Youth/age, 45–46, 87–88 Youth culture, 61–62, 419 spending categories, 61 z Zapping, 276 Zipping, 276 ... nationalpost.com /20 14/01 /28 /mannequin-makeovers-includeback-fat-tattoos-pubic-hair-and-bigger-waists/, accessed August 28 , 20 14; R Walker, “Museum Quality,” New York Times Magazine, January 9, 20 05, www.nytimes.com /20 05/01/09/... www.pinterest.com/lindsayfayedeal/solutionsto-problems-that-i-didn-t-know-that-i-ha/, accessed August 28 , 20 14; information from Arm and Hammer Company website, www.armandhammer.com/solutions.aspx, 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