smallholder irrigation technology prospects for sub saharan africa potx

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A S000

pews International Programme for

(<=) ) Technology and Research in

Rael Irrigation and Drainage

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International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage

SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY:

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‘The vows prensa Lộc hưng ao Fo ana Apu Ogun fh Uno Naor PAC) 2 tis poate ee ote amor a aot aca inertia oan arenas ang Reston Ioan ansOrenage A hana 0 or TRE

‘claosor royesing me page dinh nh totceot nt gat of me Food wa eto Cgonzaon ot {Be Unies Naum the terse Pragya Tecra ‘Su foseuc in ijton an Disrage (TNO cươmnng Đế ‘Spl see ofan cou ery cya Fe aus

_An hts monet price an dceminson mae is ifomaon prot ‘ereaueatoal soo non comer pgs ear hat ay tan

eS prokisoas thou writen parmsain ste expr haters Apples fr au

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Summary

Tis reportisa review o iigation echnolopies for smallholders inthe context of improving rural livelihoods, especially in regard to the prospect for sub-Saharan Affica The role edtiona technologies evahusted and modem water éstihutioniechnologies, such as sprinkler iigation systems, including such innovations asthe use of weale pumps ad ip-Ais at then examined and wickle inigating, are reviewed Low-cost “Thomostapynoprac technology fo use varies fom place w place depending ona wide range of ereurstances A broad classification has been mad based on climate am thế tràhtonal srievludl background of the local people, which links technology options to specific places ~ to agricultural regions and to countries Some ideas are presented om the direction that might he taken by goverumens, a donors, NGOs und the private sector t support future development, wit a special emphasis on the need to suppor a wide ange of ‘education and eaining programmes

Terigaion fas ong been seen a an opon foe improving rural ivelnoeds by iereising cro produto, bt massive investments throughout the 1970s and 1980s in sub-Saharan Africa have nat bore frat Food production targets were not mt developmen costs sere extremely high in Felation to retums an there ‘were many’ technical and managenient problems th remain ansolve Te decrease in eal terms of world corel prices mer the past dade has made i difficult wo invest in and mainiin imigated agriculture for busic grain ero

Mu ofthis crite was dteeted atthe mone formally stutured evzaton schemes usually ander the ‘contrat ofa goverment bay Because of this, tention med inthe 1980s wo the form sector, sll scaleorsallolder gation which ‘here are many smaller success tries paricularly where farmers have made he investments themselves s described asthe hottor-up" oe grass" approach to development

However sl has not gone smoot where donors have tried t stimulate development, Donors, funding ‘agencies and nations! governments, wishing accelerate the development process, fl tend 1a ase a “op {down approach where only lip services paid farmer participation, The pace i Cored to meet investment targets and marke forces have een ignored

Experience in sub-Saharan Aiea has shown that succesful smallalders generally use simple technologies and have secure water supplies aver which they have fll cote, The most successtal ecologies are ‘howe tha improve existing farming systems rahe sn those that introduce radially new ideas

Traditional technologies

Awd range of well-established tational technology options is available ruse hy smalthokers inching ‘of water harvesting swamp iigation, spate tigation, flood plain ization using seasonal water and shallow aoifrs, il sigsion, and groundwater isgaton, Thee is til however, considerable room fo improve

find aap these tuitiona technologies wo different citcunistances, Modern technologies

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supplies and gistibstors, Disvibation echologiessochas rick an sprinkle erigaion an piped supplies for the nave tional surface method, can help farmers to manage hei Water Better as well a reducing ‘wastage, Allthese teshnologies have the potential ase the prokictisity of water und abou, But they are really only accessible o those farmors who can afford a buy them and who ae growing cash crops such as ‘vegetables, fas atl flower, They ate unlikely to he taken up by poor farmers

""

This phrase seers wo modern teehnvoies that hae been developed or mosiied a some way t rng down their eos, An excellent example isthe weale pump, which Was developed specially asa ow-cost pup for snallolders and eontinses 1 be lated for patiglar faa needs anal markets inthe seyion Low’ systems of water conveyance and distribution have not been comprehensively teste and evaluated in the regio, with dhe exception of eae puniys, The adoption by smallholders of weale pumps te

‘ners ask of lifling snd carving water and the was in whieh the support services have developed offers Jessons forthe promation of other sigationtehnologies, Trensorovr rane

Low-cost, modern tanologes ca help sialTholees move fon) subsisenee Farming ito growing cash crops Success will be determined more by the capacity of smallholders to take risks an adopt ne technologies in situations where services a erratic, costs ave high and matkels ae vnpesitale, Factors ‘influencing technology uplake are the existence ofa market-driven demand or agricul proce: 3 Wel designedleehnoloey hats hoth appropiate ad aonb Foe the lol farming ad manntscuring systems ‘local private socio eapuble of mss prohiction of relia equipotent eestive priate seetor dissbution networks for agrculara inputs snd guipmten ieloding rat nÍnstrietre and dit,

The sverage at of gation development for th sub-Saharan Aleiea repion (40 counties} aver the past 12 years in 600 hear a average of | 150 hasear for each county, Same counties have average fates of development ver 2 000 halyear (eg Tancania, Nigeria, Niger, Zimhalwe an South Aftea),

Ie the current rate continues ave the nest 25 years thea an ext one mili ha oF igation could be brought into production - increasing the toil area presently under iigaion by 50 perce Even athe most ‘plist rate, the contrition that inigaion ean make to ierease fond production inthe egion will be odes unless some of the hey sonstents ae remove

Secling up development docs aot necessarily mean building irgation schemes fester but building ‘many pore of them An imporam lesson Jearzed over the past 20 years is that sllboldersetemes develop trols ä slow inerementl process of improvement sally i response to fener demand Unfortunate this iat ks with dhe way’ in which most donor and govern

enisies work a specifi ime schedules For irgation succeed, experience snd knowkedgcuble stl wil he need, Labour studies ean assess the demand an supply of waned people Demin i hased om the expected growh rates in iigatio an the ‘supply of tein people at ll eves fase mn the outp fom ba thế im non and inservice taining txrangements Support will nidoubsely be regired sn order to eslabish appropriate insittional ani Service taining programs tha properly ein people forthe jobs they mst Go odes the fundamental issues related the improvement and adoption of appropriate

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Smale iergation echnologs: prospect for dỗ: jean Nica

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Acknowledgements

‘The author would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for thir valuable assistance duting the preparation ofthis por:

‘Tom Brabben, Audrey Nepvew de Vllemarceau, and Arunugam Kandinh, IPTRID, Land and Water Development Division, FAO, Rome

.Offers of the Water Resources Development and Management Serve, FAO, Rome, particularly Reto Florin, Manin Smith and Nico VanLeeuwen

Michael Fitzpatrick, Amsdow Soumaita and Abdul Kobakwal, FAO, Rome Jean Payen,Inigation Adviser, IFAD, Rome

a Perry, Emerrise Works Worldwide, Washington DC, USA, Peter Raymond, INPIM, Washington DC, USA

Fernando Gonzalez, Geen Diemer and tarw Mina of the Rural Development Department, World Bank, ‘Washington DC USA Jaap van de Poland Volker Branscheid, World Bank, Washington DC, USA

Richard Carter, Cranfield University, UK Gee Cornish, HR Wallingford UK,

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Sina gation recto

` and sustain rural livelihoods by increasing erop production, can reduce dependeney on rainfed sgviculture in drought prone areas and increase

‘zapping incensiis in humid and topical zones by ‘exening” he wet season ad inuocing fective scans of water contrl In dhe 1970s and 1980s fntetrational agencies amd national governments ‘vested easily ninigaionw intensity agriculare and reap the benefits ofthe high yield potential of Saigned agricltre, The nature of donor sponsored development favoured large-scale projects rather shan spall nes and the majority of Fonding went Imo large-scale iigaion schemes tis now widely sccepie that tis massive investment has bar (uit Food production «argets were not met development costs wore extremely high, and dere ‘were many technica and management problems that rena unsolved Over the past decade low world cereal prices have ot helped his situation making it sone difficult to manain and ve in expensive inigated agriculture for base food crops “Much of this ertcism of irigation has been slrete a che more Formally siuetred inigation Schemes usully under the conto of @ government hs Because Schemes were large the approach ‘top-down’ Project cient, 19 all intents and purposes, weated smallolders a shourers, and aes were mae to cay out all major agricultural operations on large scale os a subsidized serve, Dissatisfaction sult ofthe inability of scheme managers to provide promised services such as eultivatios, land grading and harvesting on ie Tw Case vom SSeOL AHS

Because of the erteism, attention ened in the 1080 tothe informal seco This was iạnifiean shift fromm engineering Jed ieigation solutions approach in which the Financial eultoral and soxiat circumstances of te IhneFicates were ta be taken into account This ws inigaion practised hy individual farmers of smallholders, usally farming on a stall sale ta Few hectares) under teirown responsibility: aul pmspects fr stb Saharan Ae 1 Introduction

ÍnA t8đaw e4 phe report on arate: Inigo ora oumal twas ted hat

‘yn etd to Alfcsn emalnaderigaton wit famng axperence, would be amazed athe way Irigalod ager has boon approached nthe region recent cocazes, Te manner wien ‘anversare gen rested and imedenaroes, to wha o grow charged for doubt seotee, ndftored d'or pias or ai produce woud be laughable o European farmers The fc at this and many other documants make such otwous statrents shows how me te exsng paraagm of development has been accplad

‘Tho authors’ message is twe-old Fist ‘ovnmments and eters shots som oer 16 senvelbaf san dedlmone sndacieteendhep tram o toekee oFeebuoy.Socord, te authors frase that mest Aliean smalholdere are presseupied wih mma 3k and sual Farrag too ney en famersmay ve pty 'oaher means sunwaland ncomegenarston,

“hare are major obstacas to change that lea the erormavs vested terest of rae ofertnan Tans wh promote smahacer inp

ttow-cos with litle or no ovement suppor snd Using lechnlogy they could understand and manag cisily themselves, I is olten deseribed a the bottom-up” or ‘approach 40 development Suresinly, uptothat pou sis kind of development had recived very litle attention from the main aid donors in spite of the fact dat Lis type oF irigation Was alzeady playing 3 significant ole in several countries, ‘Oser the past 20 years this spproae fas been the main focus of attention, Ideas sbost how 10 increase Food prediction have heen alusted take imo account some of the physical realities of land and water use and resource allvation, For example, conly five percent of the cultivated area in sub Sabaran Afsica is iigated und the sual poor are

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“There are many smallholder success stories but all has not gone smoothly Tao many international ‘agencies and national goveraments wishing to accelerate the development proces sil end 10 use down’ approach Some have grouped many independent smallholders togeter into a “project for administrative convenience an created large scale projects with thir atendant problems There "have ben too many instanees of paving lip service to farmer panicipation, forsing the pace 40 mect investment targets and ignoring market forces The much-used term of “low-cost engineering” has Derome a enptenim fo poor engine ein

To Many evs?

It is well established that the potential for irigation interms o land and water resources in the region is Significant, These resources donot constrain development although many other Factors do The “all i that smallholder sigation does not mean itis simple ‘Over the past 20 years a great deal has been ‘written about what has or has not been dane for mallholder irigadon The literature available is comprehensive, covering topics that inelude appraisals of various technologies and socio- ceononie and anthropological studies Much has ‘heen published, but ther is sill much that snot in the public domain, which may be of considerable benefit 1o others and resides a "ery" trate in the archives of various organizations Indeed, there is a fear that a great deal of knowledge and experience is ‘lost’ simply through changes in international agency and government staff, thus reducing "corporate memory" litle more than a

decade mì

to have found its way inta current development practice The question remains as to how this potential in terms of the available natural resource an be realized, Some argue that market forces will rive development ifthe price of food crops is enough o encourage farmers to increase production ‘The rewards for meeting market demands can be high but so 100 can be the risks of failure Others suggest that development can be diven hy aid suppor, panicularly for subsistence farmers who fre more concerned with securing their basic livelihoods than producing eops to sell The eality is that both approaches play important roles The challenge ist encourage more subsistence farmers

Introduction to move towards the market economy, through reduction of risk to their Basic livelihoods, so that they may be prepared ta ake the risks and rewards ‘that the market offers IF progress is to be made in smaltholder ‘development there isan urgent need to continually review and update what is known and 10 put this information before decision-makers in a way that provides them with the information to develop cohesive strategies to support future development

leis well known and accepted docs not determine success and i is essential to that technology alone asses ils usefulness within a socal and economic fontext for any intervention to have meaning I is for the individual farm couniry to assess the appropriateness of the technology within their own complex socio- ‘nomic etumstances Technology provides a ‘sel framework on which to build strategy for evelopment Technology comes early in any inrgaton development and is always at the heart of any ieigation scheme large and smal, and without it there is no imigaton scheme, Technology can Significantly reduce the drudgery of lifting and applying water and can help solve water ‘management problems faced by small-scale farmers ‘making it easier and simpler to apply the right Amount of water to their erops at dhe Fight place at the right time The technology must be Fight forthe sitwation i iigation ist have a chance of sovess Pating inthe wrong technology can meae tha the seeds of fulure are already well established Before ‘scheme has even had cance to grow

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nator ini tin reco

lerigavion technologies so as te fi different In revent years there has beet a growing interes in modern tcchinolgies These usually cost stich

more than tational methods and rely very much fn extemal specialist Suppo from suppliers kl Sistebutors, Small motor-driven pumps, for ‘eaple ca greatly seduce he ddgory of fiking water Distribution ecologies such a8 trickle sprinkle iergaton and piped supplies for the more traditional suelace metho, can help farmers ‘which nfur reuces c walter belle as well as reduce wastage the amount of water tha sds ling Modern technolagis have gained Favour ‘with farmers inthe develope world allowing them Ao apply water move accursely and adequately and to increase yields and erop quay Engineers and planners often favor the se ofthese techno bwatce water savings by sane fiers means thst rion is available for others Ax one irsigation specialist sleds “Trickle erigation cam inpnive ‘hop yields, which ie what formers ave interested In nd significantly reduce water wastage, which is what engincers are interested Jn” 8 win-win ‘satin Tor people andthe environmen Low-cost technolagies ste heing examined and evaluated, Most of th tational ch

Joncas, However, the fern) “low-cost is usally reserved for moder tecialogies that fe been developed madifed to ing down the cost, A excellent example i he re pur, which was developed specially as a low-cost pump for ssnallholéer 1 has been particulary succes in ‘Asia in eplacing the mana ting andeanying of ‘ater Is upyske in sub-Saharan Attics in recent sogies are

years very encouraging ‘Arcthese moder ehiolosies ss god a pope 3, are the jus 200tr hiek ix peomted by ‘hose who have a vested interest in selling the ‘xjipment? Hovs sucess have they heen in te developing world as appased te ihe more sophisticated social un economnie ensionments the developed world? Are the traditional technologies being ignored simply because itis ‘eyehlogiclly easier to invest in sprinkler and ion that are regarded as tient and riodeen” whereas triton meio are regarded {6 an ineficent™™

The term vaallalder requites some eaifcation ssi means ferent hing to denen: people Fae

ets for sb Stharan Afra 2

som, Ue lage isigation sehen in BgypI and the ‘Sua are sulle scheme These schemes are large ers of area at they ate made up of many smal farms lten ess than 2 ha} They ase designed and constructed by government agencies that thea ‘ake over the responsbiliy for managing the water supply sustem, Dhey are ofen described as formal ‘large-scale sialon schemes ad have borne the brunt of much af the criticism of inrigation development in sub-Saharan Alri tr the 19005 Government ma

sent charaetetizes formal atiple, 8 30 ha imigation scheme with 500 smalholdes eae ith (O.1 ha where the water supply is managed by a government ageney might be thouebt of as a Smallhoker scheme However t woul have a the characteristics of a Touma!” or “arge®iigation scheniebscause ofthe way in which Water and other key agricultural Sndependenly of the fren, For others, smallholder ts synonymous with

‘soall-scal” or “ifonmal egation~ small fms {olten considerably les thao a, pra

nd unde the coniplete camo! ofthe Fame with Title oF no input from eaternal government —.1.1.11 Farmers tế tha nà native and nàpond silter Lo heir Fails" Fond noes tothe market place, Farmers sell have diel access to sinface water

Dr aroandsater and ake hiro decisions about how and when dey will iigute and bow mach water to apply, They

subsistence arming where she Eatily provides the jon of the Iahour and the farm provides the principal sauree of insinte, This sevior includes

a mix of commercial and

sanall commercial enterprises pring high value ‘ops sich cul Homers nl proce for ext Sevalolders vsually work on their owe ba, cause ofthe investment need to gan acess to Water they sometimes eed to work in rou An evaimple would be scheme seguirng a reser fra lange pumping ation om giver that one fatter alone could nt aford A 50 ha irrga

having S00 smallholders each with.1 ha managed by the Tanners th

suppor could equally be called @ smallholder scheme wold have quite diferent characterises to the similar sized scheme desribed soe, The Farmers themselves vselves without government fr commissiom a professional ei

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properly the farmers have the ultimate power Aismiss the manager and to hte an altemative, This is not stay the ease wet the government as the scheme, The term smallholder i used im preference 0 small-sale a the later soem confused with size ss well management sivle, Staller is aso term now side used by ntematonal

includes individual furs a6 well as

the farmers themselves laken oa the responsibility tor managing the or thei represcitlives ave Aisiibuton of ater among the members of ther

tou

ronnie The term itgation need clarification ligation Includes any practice that stores diet exp Water sich as water harvesting, vse of low-lying Wetlands and groundwater well asthe more teaitional techniques of diverting or iting water for disibution using surface, sprinkle or teckle

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Silke vigation techno: prt fr sh Saban hie

Some technologies are referred fo as “raditional” bbovase farmers have use them fr many yeas, n tues Underhill (1984) fist suggested clasitication of taditionatecanolgis, ‘which suse here ih some maiiations, Table 1 some eases for Traditional technologies Sam greta ssn cr ase © Lae wars ae sna of alan fos ca Toodeoez reo trái

Brown rai (1995) atemptedo show how th leslnologies were inked a farmer contol i.e the level af contol tata farmer would have over the design and investment decisions and over water management, Figute 1

tise stra imponement by Tad ‘i alr, gar

Niger snd Be a

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Figure 1: Farmer cont of ingation schemes (Brown Water Harvesting (ea Gera) Groindeater Sot" | shatlow wos | Paauler 9 ễ H Ỹ Trationatrechnolaios 31-1995) Ea pate poor «| ĐMA2 | manHon | “ưa see Swamp |, woos “ x 2 ‘Large Seale Govt dow wet ‘Smal Storage

| Farmer Gol over Water Manas

Warr nas esiee

Water harvesting is method that hash

For centuries bu 8 not widely exploited in sub Saharan Africa Ilsa sited tate and semi< afidarens where en-ed craps cnet be aroun with fy certainty because the rainfalls both une And highly variable (EAD 1994), The ey season isollen shor with no assurance of when it wil start ‘an ins and there maybe Fequent long spells Rainfall s collected feom sununding aieas and channelled as ra ont Fars oa tothe Fin that falls ditetls onto the stops lterestngls 0 cone doubts the eritical importance of rainfall, although few poliey-makers recagnize the importance of run-off which isthe inevitable

product of excessive rin Is curios parlon that farmers recognize and exploit the natural sncentration of rainwater in valley bottoms ad local depressions, yet the oterriding perception driving policy that run-off isfucled by the prominence given o the soncerns a hazard This view bot sil erosion, which fone product of rat ind has been the Toews of research and extension forts to curs i since the 1930s, Water harvesting ignizes the potential value of run-off as a ma niga the hazard Rosi is collected toma lrgecatshment

and channeled o increase the water available in smaller growing ares, There are miro-catchment ‘stems, which are modest in size, where water is callected fron land adjacent 10 the farm and channelled directly onto the fields On an even Smaller scale mero-catchments can be constructed around individual plans (fen tees) There ae tmacrorsatchnent systems that have large water collecting areas, These are often a considerable slisgnee from the farming areas and can serve many: farms Substantial quantities of water ean be

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‘Salter ieigtion technology: prospect for sub-Saharan Africa %

In Tarzana water harvesting is used suerasty fn large seas for growing He (abu 1950) Inaan migra are toed tohave roduc te focallodmaalu rained io sytem nth 19208

Iris used in the lomlands of Tanzania where {2p ref rary collet te valsy botere raking Weal for padoy ree fs adoption was nt ley etal change agents and was ratostered y ederalsibsƯee bulnaverelea thas pred steady sinco the 10806 Ofical data now chow hat the maja systems contbute 35 poe ot ‘otal es production In Tarzana Reco research has boon card out to tr ana inrduce micro

bysterma infec ares for ize progucton Te Ideas that mero sytem would give smalhoisrs ‘more conte over tetas However fin hy farmers understood the Sensis of rannater rarvesing bt wore rican fo adopt te systom “Toy wore more ners th gear posers of using maco-aiornen systems and argued In ‘avout onalegorscale So rte ined ae wit macro of more ambos tempts to harvest unt Systems for maze ste mud Proper conta ver ‘Stbuton of harvested rnc within he copped ‘fea more problonah fr doe rgatos cops

onl ever the đbulen of rin an ead 0 ‘seriou erosion Too mac water ean be a ig 3 froblemastoa ine, Teneedorcoopersve SoU [cto can aso gvo ise fo dlsputes over wate ‘Shaving So wngtherlmes wl contin Imacro-ystoms to mrosysioms as Dey sequfe to peter more exparionain remain lo Bo seen using hem or maize production However, ono signa outcome of he resoarch Ss tat goverment sees rnoas 8 net ater than lust a hazard and he cause of sal eosin Development of rainwater harvesting is to be Ieluded inthe Tancania Nana Water Resources Management Poly

Swamp irrigation

‘Swaps have heen taditonally used fr ieigaton ‘throughout the region In mangroves and coastal ‘swamps earl banks or bunds are built to exclude ‘eawaler a low fresh water from inland to enter the topped aca whichis then planted with rice ‘The main areas for mangrove and coastal swamp irrigation stretch from The Gambia round (0

swamps are naturally occuring swampy valle botoms (upto 100 ha) used to grow

rice, Small weirs and channels are constructed 10 sliver natural drainage sea is then divided imo paddy’ ids, suices are wate around swamp The ‘sed to contol the flow of water into the Fields and ‘contra dain allows excess wate 10 escape back io the natural drainage (PAO 1984) This s very ‘common inthe humid pats of West Africa such as ‘Serra Leone and Liberia and in Burund Inthe wot season many ofthe Alrcan lakes flood large areas of flat plains and these are used for rice <culivation, Examples of this type of irrigation exist, in Tanzania beside Lake Vietria and Lake Mala, in Malawi by Lake Chilwa and in the counties hordering Lake Chad, Also important are the traditional ierigation practices Found in bollands and dambos, These are lov saucer-shaped depressions in swamp grasslands such as those associated with the Rokel River in Sierra Leone “There are similar areas in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Cite dvoire, Mal, Malaw and Zambia, Spate irrigation

“This is « method of spreading water usualy from Flash floods in wadis (FAO 1987), which is a ‘common practice in some ard countries such as ‘Saudi Arabia and Yemen, It is not commonly Prtisod in sub-Saharan Africa although there ae instances ofits use in the Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia for both food and fodder evops The technology requirements need not be great though considerable skills required to successfully divert and spread the water

Flood plain irrigation

Flood plains are principally used for growing rice ‘during the wet season These are a variely of techniques involving different amounts of water contro thất overlap to @ greater or lesser degre Some of the more distinct types of wet season iigation include: Deepwater tice gown onthe Moa plains of the Niger ad Bani rivers Mall, Holdings are 15 ha with ath dykes constructed to prevent the Fields being Nlooded while the rie planta til immature, Problems aise ifthe Moods arrive 100 Tate or t00 early or F they rise too fast and submerge the rice Because of the high risk of Fail, this technique tends tobe secondary 10 ‘ainfed subsistence crops cultivated above flood Plain Tevet

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+ Flood irrigation involving the control of Aoodwaters to 50 samiday for deep-water rice nd 30 mmiay for paddy sce Varios levels of technology are posi from simple earth hanks to dykes, canals and sui gates

Inthe dry season, shallow groundwater or open ‘ate left alter the foods suse through a variety of gravity and water lifting techniques fr:

+ Recessional irrigation, Areas recently ‘inundated by floods are used by impounding the receding water with tal earth bunds, This ype ‘of ieigation Found inal the major floodplains in West Aftica for dec imigdion and close to Takes (eg, Lake Chad) for growing maize and sorghum

‘+ Residual moisture This issimiar 0 recessionat imigdion but uses the water stored in the soit rather than wer retained om the surface, Wis @ very commen form of agriculture on all major ‘ood plans, In East Arica its found on many small dambos or vi (seasonally wet areas in small catchments

‘+ Pumped streams and lakes is simple activity and can irrigation, Pumping from rivers, ‘usually be managed on an individual bass The ditional cost of pumping usually means that farmers are growing high value erops for sae in markets athe than low value subsistence crops,

‘The sallow depth aquifer that are catered over ‘more than 100 000 ha of Niger 2s well as northern igeria, Mali, and other Sahelian counties, also provide possibilities for successful smallholder Schemes The aguifers must be rechargeable (as they ain Niger and Nigeria) An obvious limitation the expansion of irigation on this basis isthe limited area where such aquifers exist and the possibility ‘of overaxing the recharging capacity of these areas A wide variety of water lifting methods are used covering a range of traditional types such as archimedian screws and the shodu tơ the moder Petrol and diesel driven pumps There has heen & growing interest in weadle pumps throughout sub- Saharan Africa since their introduction from Bangladesh and India (Kay and Brabben 2000), Generally motorized pumps are most common in the richer countces that have ready access a spare pans and ful, eg Nigeria, In water-searce areas there is also growing interest in the use of modem distribution equipment suchas wickle and sprinkle inigation for cash cropping

Trahtionalteologes —¬” Nana

Famers in northern Nigta fost hr atonal ‘Go of he lara ang tne ers folowing he onan af dams to conta he mer foods fot ‘aban water supply andirigaton Asan afratve they ume salsa gato ung salon ‘goundwaterecarged by the mer and ing oy Shadut or calabash in the ay

‘ogotablsferocal and ly mar

'83.an agretraldovlopment ‘in Kano sola ever 2 000 pumps for cash to programme basod Inaauals oF smal farmer groups Engineers ‘reduced tow cost wl technologies fon India “ae riod wes constucson by two Hira wth ‘commensurate Ineeaued rlurn 9 tubewell

—

‘Thishes enone ofthe moet suecestinigaon <Seveopmens in Ngera wh many Bausands ‘urs beingused by rat tarmors Maisnance ‘Swolesahishod and so farmers have conience In the technology However, extemal menting ‘was necossar 10 avoid depBlone'heaqưfer

lrereetngyln he 18809 sơng armors started to ‘gowahea onthe adsmssin respons oho high ‘heat pcos nth coum A sell exams o ‘he way in which private farmers canard wil

‘espand othe market the tre E rợn:

Mil irrigation

There are many small, irigated areas that are situated some distance fom ther water suse end supplied hy mainly open channels and low-pressure pine systems The witer source may be tn ‘small dum supplying water by gravity or ose of some ype of simple fing equipment An indivisual farmer of a group of farmers working oct to share the water resource ean practise this type of Jnrgaton Such systems are common in the hilly areas of cental Ethiopia, Tanzania and Malawi Groundwater ierigation from medi to deep aquifers

“Medium to deep aquifers (30 m) can be exploited all year and usually require more sophis pumping thin is commonly found in traliionaly lerigated areas Usually submersible pumps clven by electric motors or diesel engines are» ‘There are numerous examples of this ype af wer Jining and the agriculture hased upon thon

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Sinallder gation loos ppt for sab Saharan Aen Arica and other parts of the world, notably

Bangladesh, Pakistan and India This type of sevgation i aly feasible foreash erapping because Df the high enst of well consriction aml pin: ‘or when is subsidized in some wy

“"—¬

All she methous described above ean be prastised by individual farmers on their own or hy several tnners working together and sharing a common ‘water supply Onee farmers group together the ‘management of dhe supply system nesds to hệ r- is small enough the farmers

‘examined the scheme

‘may’ choose to operate it themselves, A the size increases a manager may need te he hited fl time "`" Thher way there is significant shift the men of the igi fom individ who can iigate as and whe they please o a group who ‘nus work oun agreed schedule of sharing in terns fof quantity and tình This communal approach is most favoured by sidagencies and national goyermments because itis fa way 10 help many farmers atthe same fim, Agencies often step in, with the best of iteniogs, to satisfy nge o¢ 10 act as 8 catalyst Tor development, In so doing the aid ageney or goverment ings sown sto les which may fo he compatible with what 3 reguired on the round, Agenciesneed todisperse finds line with their targets and are fen constained by tne The ‘empltion ta sped the process of development is lays present and a esl sosthe risk killing he very thing tht the agency is ring to foster by pouting i too much support too quickly IF the ‘ommunty cannot absorb he funds ast erg ad ‘do 90% ave the insituional framework, farmers ‘may’ quickly lose any sense of ownerstip of the projet a they rely on a culture of handouts and ‘ppt From outside tn such situations the project, tus ahh the eostect amount of suppor over the right ime risk lure, The challonge so wovide peri lo fosersiccessul development Underhill {private communication) once sail that if you inerfere’ in a privately initiated irsigation development by imecting more than ten percent of (he lal cost then you are in danger 0Ÿ ki ng ‘hiss aot an acura Figure bet it does ive some ‘onder of magni of whal cathe dome There are many examples comminal shemes in sub-Saturan Alice ranging from dhe very lange

(og schemes in Nigeria, Kenya) co the more ‘modest(eg Senegal Zimbabwe Tanzania Most have run nto serious problems, although there ane some successes They tend to be top-dowa in Approach and the tecknolopies used are not ays conducive to simple Water management practices fi often al 10 the problems of sharing availabe ‘water resources rather than helping to solve the For example, open channels are the most common system of supply and these are usually Fel ith upstrestn conte structures, This sone fof the most complicated systems of water

ots find it dlcal lờ distribute water properly: There is na easy way of [knowing ito itl too mich wae as hee put into the cams without some sophisticated water

indenting procedones and flow measuring devices, The hydraulic scares can Savor those a the top ‘edo he canals an there is usualy aonstnt need tovadjust the control gates, In conta pine supply systems are such less common bul are sich Simpler to aperite and respond rapidly to changes tn water demand, They can be less Wastelul of water Dosa ts easier oar ft pipe supply when Í ơi needed 1 isnot possible wo tum off a canal

without draining it down, ‘Whom looking to the fuse ts italy Spot tw review past experience of similar developments to see wht lessons can he eared about wha ad what ot iodo, Several comprehensive reviews of the Sael region have heen made in recemt yews (e.g, Moris 1984 and 1987, Brown and Nooter 1992) Thetwoypes of development are recognized in the roviews: those i whic farmers have funded those that have received external support frm an agenc}ethar i the form of direct a dough a special loan arrangement, The forme ate usually tase on the femers perceptions of Family needs and those ofthe local sarkes.Tasestnent is els to be made wih great cate to minimize te risk of Fale, The later haves mchhighor risk of lure Fora range of reasons, al he Ft that they’ are for sialholders (a oppose to large-scale img) iso avarantee of sosess ation themselves using their own resources aa

Review of the Sabel experience

Trang 17

mm

Comma, aaron m Senn -Athough communal schemes presenta righar ik ‘hanindiaua sehemes hae ars example hore they work wel In Senegal smal lage schemes (of 20ha or ess have boon contrcted long tho Senegal Rive Thave vay compres 40-80 08 Gt equal sae supped by an open channel yer fad by 15 KW 0g) engine puns fom he rive Itwasimgonantfortemeratotinga way a stabize ‘fe preducten nares whore toy no longer ha ‘sy acess othe fond rocesin fol along te ‘hard, In tost eases armers a lvad inthe ‘ame vilge and worked opener ons cortmon ‘Sbjct of eving he fe potion th igen ‘The armors, who vested abourin eang bush and dging cana, consrucied the scmes in Dt Thy usually roquostedasetanco om tho ‘cea goversment ngaton agency ar usally ‘esto nthe provon ofa pump-se, ies, ste Survey and equipment or eonstacon vg funds from s¢ donors Thore was resistance to this ‘ameriaatoaiea atest because of goverment plans for large-scale schemes in the srea' A Dresden doce recognized the Bones of {echnical agsistance for irrigation ana the Imptancet meen ammardenaode raherman Imposinga solution Over te cat 18 years atlast "700 schemes have en Bu

Production hae remained predominantly sbastenco ofered eventhough atoms wore ‘mado jo oons gation cath oop Iereasing {mer hotangs dant encourage lamers to row cash rps and they coined to grow ne fo fay season and maze fr eat food hộ đy Al inasructre on the schemes is co-owned by farmers Rotation ol water supe 8 roognzed ‘nay of sbarngoutte avasale spy Repaid Iaintenance is handles Inthe same way a

schemes work wel nude

+ Consiactin trough investment of labour by {armere sot using don tnded equpment + Selection af sites not usualy used far sprue, + Pursut a an 'shabting a farming system under Guess economic objective ~ in this as + Full autonomy for each vilage scheme yeealaly, oporabonaly and mạ»agonauy

(emer ana Hubers 1995) ‘operated sllholder scenes in Mal, Mauritania [Niger and northera Nigeria aswell asin Burkina Faso, Chad and Senegal, In some cases these Aevelopments were entirely spontaneous, and in others, they were supported by NGOs of with

Trade tenoloien ‘minimal government assistance Some farmers tok tudvantage of earlier investment and used the infrasitucture from earlier, failed lar

Trang 18

Srallaider tego ecg praets

Cameroon lus beon an excepvion, Large-scale iigation hes been successful ut mainly because fof tong expatriate management using farmers 8$ Taourers rather than decision-maker Faters have scooped tis situation because athe high inaneish Fetucns and because of the lack of other ‘oppoatunitics From their comprehensive review Brawn and Nooier (1992) suggested several characte hit sae coniman to suesesstul schemes

+ Technology is usually simple and locos (most, frequent small pumps drawing water from shallow aquifers or divers and steams,

+The institutional arangements ate private snd individ +The supposting inrastracture pennis asvess 10 inputs and to markets forthe se of srplus

proton,

+ Theresa high Financia (cash) etunn to Famers the times when they most ‘+ Farmers are active and commited participants in project design and implementation,

‘The authors found the perception of "weeess ‘vas diferent for irrigation tecanicians, donors governments and farmers Their view was that in terns of the

Success eaull only be assesse

Tariners' definition, “The most effective anangemtens for schemes thar were larger than individual cwnership were found (0 be (in devsessing onder of si ‘extended family groups; private voluntary Water users” associatinns and then cooperatives “They concluded that project design should be based ‘on the following concep

+ Encourage smaller, private and individ insesment in erigation and implement projcets with many small components, where NGOs Frequently are effective implementing imermediaes

+ Epoy methods that ensure ory a fl farmer Patiipation in projet design and operations devoting as muck staffing and funding 10 studying

+ esti and disseminate low-cost small pump technology and tubewell construction tectnigues and inchide provision of soil and water surveys ‘eyond the purview of individual Farmers but Tarmers” economic and social

seen foe sustain

+ Ensure a miacro-economic framework dat wil reward the Farmers” and terchant” die for

lor sab Sar rc "

low costs and high rtums hase on real ast, Boa Financial and economic rteso rere must he satisfactory an a sstained basis an void lunsstainable subsidies, since their removal oul lea 10 projet’ calle

+ Ensure the avsilsbility of foreign exchange needed to secure supplis of spare pts inputs 1nd adequate repair facilities and ensure that there is the essential infrastructure needed lor ` " 1+ Make prosision for traning in maintenance and lergation wechniques for farmers, preferably leough private sector supplies; ad ensue that enviromental eonsiderations ate pronided To suchas theetfoctof gation on health drainage and erosion contol which my not be evident

Sunes ARCS

A wide range of established and well-documented tealitional technalogie is asailahle for use by smalholders, These clearly play a significant sole in the region and will continue to do s0, Th Mill considerable room 4ø adapt traditional technologies to diferent cisumstinces, which hocause of thei low cast ad simplicity ean an) minained by siallboiders with litle oF be used external suppor, They ave particularly suited to Subsistence faning and equally have an important role to playin the transition to ash exopping For this reas they have altace ic interest from sid donors and gosermmenis wishing £0 support Subsistence Fanning Mian lessons leaned shout what needs toe done have been concemed! more with the says in shih such technologies can be introduced into Farming systems rather than the technologies per se However tet are stilleoncems at the technology aad the ably of people 19 design and eonsteact good engineering works that ‘ill proside lasting service Tere is also a danger that “low-cost solutions, which may be ataetive to ald donors, may become a euphemism for poor enginoering,

Trang 19

Sinaltholder ivigaion technology: prospects or sbSaharan Area 1

“The term “modern technology” in relation to inrgation usually refers toon-farmiigation stems such as sprinkler and trickle igation It can also mean the inroduetion of piped dstebution systems For surface igation as well asthe use of treadle pumps (a recent innovation in Africa) othe use of petrol and diesel driven pumps in areas where such technology i ot normally used Some professionals and policy-makers perceive modem technologies as an intervention that ean improve erop yields and ‘ality and, atthe same time, reduce water wastage {abetterterm to use than irigationeffcieney which can be misleading), Most modern technology developments have been driven by the needs ofthe developed werld 0 reduce labour inputs, Keep energy costs a ow as possible and reduce water wastage, while ‘nintaning operational reliability Inthe rigation sector itis the large commercial agricultural cnferprises tht have driven such developments and the results have been impressive Production costs have fallen and erop yields and quality have improved ‘Can similar benefits be realized by small in developing countries? Cornish (1998) summarizes te sues He quotes Hill (1989) who expressed concerns about the way in whieh ‘manufacturers, and farmers 38 customers for their products inthe developed world are fascinated by sophisticated technology and eager to have more specialized and inicate hardware vo use He states hat; "In the non-ndstrial cures the important auributes are, low-cost, simplicity of design and ‘operation, reliability longevity few manufactured prs that must be imported, easy maintenance nd Jow energy requirements” Hillel also suggests that generally the “ahour economy is less important.” Phusuelec eta 1988) also arg that one of the Uriving forces for sprinkle and wickle isigation development has been the intrest and investment fn the part of private sector manufacturers of ircigation equipment For the majority of smaloldesin developing counties grovvng staple ‘crops with existing surface iigation schemes and Jw labour cost, returns ean seldom justify the capital expenditure associated with equipme Modern technologies

Keller (1990) says that modern technology can result in less water wastage because water is ‘conveyed in pipes and irigators ean control the mount of water applied and its timing more easily ‘which ean ineease productivity per unit of water He suggests that traditional methods have lied productivity and are dependent on farmers’ willingness to invest in land preparation and in coaxing water to spreaevenly over the land, Buying ‘modern irigation equipment is trading money for Tabour and skill Keller also stresses that the ‘opportunity cost of money for smallholders is very high whilst that of labour and taditional kil i low Farmers will make the investment in modem equipment only when the financial recur is clear and relatively assred, For many poor farmers the idea ofa cash invesiment is inconceivable without «reid institutional support that ensures succes Very few farmers in Europe and the USA survive without subsidies and Financial support fom _Eovernments yet poor firmersin Africa are expected to sand on their own feet with itl or no support ‘Modern technologies ar unlikely tobe taken up by poor subsistence farmers eeause they are mostly concerned wih food security and minimizing isk, ‘Those tecnologies are more likely to be adopted by Farmers that have boen able to diversity faring income beyond hase food crops and who are able to consider marketing produce outside the home ‘The issue here is howto help farmers move into the

income-generating through the

Trang 20

Some use souroes of information include Cornish (1998) wha prod thorough review of soak technologies for smalihokders in eveloping countries He points out that many modeen technologies are not suite Lo slo irigsion Camanh bạt dailhle technnlogies su demles features making them soituhle for use by sspallhoers Kay (1983) provides practical details fa wide range of sprinkle irigation eguipment and Keller and Bleisner (990) deserve both sprinkle and trickle irrigation systems in detail as well as providing design exaonples Key and Babe (2000) have recently published a review of the potential fo the use of teadle pumps in Aiea Bemtun and Sout (1994) produced a report whic eviews the ‘sco bred pipelines for surface iigation and thir potential otaprove water managennent and reduce Water wastage Smee hanoxH0x

Sprinkle ierigation is used on approximately five percent of irrigated fad throughout he world ‘he majority of which isn developod counties lí 5 unlikely to replace the lrg tess unde sures ga, Fessentially the remaining 95 pereent except fora small amount of tickle), Sprnble inrigaton has a distinct advantage, becanse good water management practices are bull ito the Sprinkle irigation technol provide the Nesibilty and simphity required for Aseesil operation, nependent ofthe ati sil

{and topgeapic conditions Pups pipes and on- farm equipment ean all be

reduce upiform irgation ata contolled water application rate and provided simple operatin procedures are followed, th ing

shill required fhe responsibility fr successful irigation in the of he operator are minimal, Tis pus hands ofthe designer rather hat leaving entirely to the Farmer Spine can he mach simpler 0 ‘operate and roquites fewer water management skills However i requiees sophisticated design sill and f-fim support i terms of maintenage andthe supply of spate pars, Sprinkle is potnially less wasteful of waterand uses less labour than sirace ieigaion {ean be dae more easily to sandy soi subject to erosion fm undulating ground, which may he sot tore aceully selected (0

snide for surface methods, There are many types of Sprinkle systensavalale to suit a wide Sariety of operating conditions, The most common for smallholders is a system using pottable pipes

no

{aluminium or plas) sappyng smal otra srinlers, Becawse of the portability of pdBlMe systems they ure ides for supplementary as Well as

Arie foreiron of sprinkle developments is the centre pivot machine, wich ‘tate These machines ane very adaptable In he ca erga up 0 1 he

sla shape fields crossing field boundaries inigate several fos growing dtferent ees athe ‘a ie, One machine was used wo irigate several farms where the farmers desided wo cooperate, Here he Farmers’ 9Ì in Hrigaing large areas having ‘nultiple oxnersip and mininal inputs should not be underestimated iby is well-known exaiple of thet ase for iigatng large deser areas, As fat 2 the farmers under the pivots were concerned it ined once a cek asthe pivot rotted From a management point of view spriakle irigation provided a relatively simple system to operate allowed farmers to-do the ring, Altough the stills needed 0 operate these machines and 10 inlan the must ao he underestimated hey ae no more than those required to keep motorears ‘unig In most developing countries technicians

đản his very successtlly i he private sectors This is nat s0 much to advocate the widespread use of sf pivot machin for sinallners but point ‘out tha technology ean be very’ adaptable al ean be used in inosaine ways hon the contin ae sight Table 2 provides a summary of the disferem sprinkle systers sable,

Sprinkle for smaltholders?

develope for targer Tanas The system isnot ver Flexible and adapable ‘ore multe of smal pls usally found on all Faums In some eases thete are ay’ around the prablen, sick as using the same equipment i Fnnaginative ways as can he se in the following Section, which s based on experience gained in Zimbabwe, New ideas are being developed for ‘suipment specifically sited for use by whe sill farmer hath in terms Comish (1998) lists several counties where af technology and cos sprinkle irrigation as been used t9 supporl smallholder devefopment in countees outside of sub-Saharan Aiea steh as fordan, Israel, Cyprus tind others The problem i tha oat reports do no Usually answer sti smmportant questions as who pays Tor dhe equipment whe ostns anal nuns the

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Sat kelndlkt: pnitenr -Tabl 2 Summary of sprinho tigation ystems

‘Sor ines Satcowy

shauna đấu

Sees Gresiponenay iagston ườ

Fes payee, Sul for nat ganna

schemes and just how sueeessfil they have been in reeting users aspirations?

Zimbabwe experience

baby is sposial when i comes 10 irigaion ‘equipment because it has a history of large «commercial farming sprinkle and trickle irrigation manufacturing (200 haan more} on which a distributing and support network has grown Zimbabwe also has 2 large smallholder farming ‘community and ates have been made to adapt those same systems to their ness Saistvang one lage farm having single rap is athe diferent Fem satistying 200 farers on the sme ld tes rowingmany dtferent raps at differen times, The Technical problems of adaptation can be considerable Diemer (2000) looked at a sprinkle Scheie here the layout normaly used for hrge ‘Somme arms was ransered without ane to the smallholder situation It ereated endless managenient problems that were eventually solved by rearanging the same equipment in a diferent, layout By using Mevible hoses to supply water 0 sprinklers rather than the rigid aluminiom pipe Tivos this system sas found to he svuoh mone adaable to the needs of salle, The government irrigation design and construction service, Agritex, has been at the forefront of developing new schemes for ssrallholers recent comprehensive sty (FAO 2000) often smallholder Tou sucface} has highlighted some of thesnecesses schemes si sprinkler and

and falures The schestes anal typical smaller desolopments tht were iniated and Financed by 2

sovernment agency stimulate development, AI evera farmers sharing the same water source and distriuion system Al have heen hands! over tothe farmers fordhem tooperateandinainain, P60 examples a success and failure, ae highlighted in the bor Chitora, Zinbabuve ~ a success: Nees Manna, Zibobwe ~ a falar

Except in one of two eases where there was reference (poor design of layouts and equipment ‘he technology sed ws nota major determinant it the snecess oF File of the schemes although it tay’ ave played a role, Sprinklers eat simply insgation management and although iL was net siscussed, the long history of sprinkle erigaton in ‘the country is likely to have created canfidence among farmers thatthe technology would work well ‘aif not then it would not heticut tog it xed ‘What is clear from the study the complex soeial, economic, teeical and institutional sues ‘uroudng smallholder inigatinn schemes making each one unique and demonstrating the importance ‘of getting the muita right, I als emphasizes the point na by others that small-scale does not mean Simple ‘The FAO sud has some gener conclusions: 1+ 1eas essential for farmers to tly paniciate hua the project planning implementation

and valuation no st benetiiaies oF projects phases and be weated as "owners + Consultants enzages io implementsuch should have experience in participatory rural schemes

appraisal and smallholder irrigation ‘development

Trang 22

dorm technologies

(Crone Zaman ~ 4 scenes

“hi E a mai schere rgaing enh 9 ha wth rag hose spinors 6 one ofthe most succesil farmer manages irgatn schemes the cour In operation since 1994 i un by young pope aged 220 27 ‘Years who were wahout os ad were dependent on ba paren for everyting, Thapar ‘ito engage in rged sgreuizs an co 18 of hex hisren accepted the ofr of maton suppor fom lạt hay were oo Agnes te goverment nigsion development agency Agrx provided al the nuts forthe scheme ncuding {Mose for he fist groing season From then on the young farmers Pad to fsnce the chen tersehes ‘They worenvlved ever slagect develoent rom leeing olmplemaniston and row Nave tulresperstay for operation and maintenance

“Tne copping pogamme is essemlaly fr igh value honiutual crops grown for he makes onthe cust ‘ot Harare where era's a darand for good quay vogetables Gran maize ie not grown bacause farmers ‘igus Pat is cheaper to buy I lsowhere tan 1 pode It themselves, Te argue ‘inci of cpporny cst, is based cn the Farmers acome average 2560000 pe year corgsred kân at 2516800 site abour wages the town The farmers soe no reason fo mira io the tows whore they ae wel aware that costs of hịng ‘rou be mụch hghec

“The scheme i entity iarmermanaged through a sje of byelaws enlorced by an igaton Management ‘Gomme thats responsi or coordralng al schee acivles ncudng payrmertef bit la slectcy, ‘aitenanee work, nonbiysubserptons rom tamer, mastasing cline the shore and eaocalin pes

‘The tamers conn receiva suppor tom Agitxin helm traning and extonsion sence The sucoseil Berormance af tho sehome reported a enue lamers senee 6 oenaahp end to Da! fat ne Scheme belongs fo thêm nt posable 1o say what le tchnology played in ia success Unde) ‘tater management wes made ease fo deal wit andthe avaliy of spare pars neers suppor Zinbabwo ous a ote sour ol armors using sue eyo

Neca Mat ZueaetE Ai

‘This ea cormmunal scheme bls he same te a8 Chior bt on larger sole aa pat oan a proc assocatod weh dam consucin ts yieal fa government bul and in ign scheme hat has no Gets in geting amor fo ‘on Be scheme erginaly const tre Dena The some covers 216 ha wit 154 pos fenging rom 0.5 to 1-5 ha, rian is by puns fa by gravity ereoreavonng the problems of pursing Law value cops are grown wih vary fw high value vegetables Since fs ncpton Hi 1908 the schema has ot un wel Farmers camed thoy ero naver coneutod about the scheme an were ‘ita hey woul lo that la ecorenues obo un by be Goveront, whch aso pays or actin, wate ng servepe Ths loa 1 scant rear for tho sof water and lotily bythe tame Farmers re felicia o take over tho responsibly of tuning and maintaining he scheme hemselves and compl ai the infield designs are nacequat, which leads fo regular putes betven the farmers and goverment lngMulone

+ ICs important to help farmerswith inputs for the frst season so that they can build a cash base to-ease cath Now

out the worl! that younger people tend ta re receptive to new ideas, particularly to new technology and may’ also be in a position to tke rater aks than thei elders wh have more faily respomsbiies Targeting young fsrmers may be ‘one srategy that is worthy of further ates

+ Farmer managed ivigation seems can reduce the financial burden onthe government in terms ‘of operation and maintenance

+ Government needs to produce & clear and

systematie strategy fo handing over government managed schemes 1 Famers South Africa experience ‘+The issue of inheritance asi aloes Hand tenure

should be decided in the planning and management of smallhokerierigation schemes (One interesting fact, which stot ased by ater Investigators, ithe age profile of the farmers on the Chior irrigation scheme, Its wel recognize

Trang 23

Salter ieigation technolo: prospect for sub Saharan Africa ư Ewenence rou ourooe me noe

Moxieohasahistory of egates agit having (ver 6 millon hạ Under trgaton (Manuel an ‘Maldonado 1009) Sợinfergalonhe longbeon —— gation evetcpment ‘nalarge sale and in partcuar by FIRCO (rust Fund for Shared Fisk) which Is part of

Secretariat of Agiculae, Livestock and Rut! Deelopment fe Goversment of Mexico ‘A fecont development as undeikon iy ‘eglon ofthe country Dutng te tres years f is

rogramme twas reported tat 1000 spinor Irigaton modules (esch a 0.1 ha) war netaog in 60 communis belonging le 35 aitferent ‘uincipalties, The reaeon ‘given for using Spent and ecko was wale early andthe problems related ous mare vation matods Ot gation The cost of atonal was USSS00/ hạ meblslon cost ware borne by the farmere ‘iho eontibuled tet labour and govertment engineer provided techni asitanes Themen (ops grown inuded com an beans may or Selt-cansumption as both staple crops are frpensiv orsltoscommniins wo are stant trommarats Famers were epondta be seeing ‘change ther copring patter sat both hec home neds and Yo grow veetaies fr tho cy

Anough hare were no scatons ot he extent of farmer funding and InvoWenent inthe Semone, eco has a wadeveaped igaton sector and TrBilolytatfiesehone lbuldon < vadten Where tis wiately success remains To bo

cropping shea, barley, corn, peanuts and cotton (Valmont personal communication) The project which was originally installed to sel farmers in the forme ‘homelands’ so farhas 73 pivots installed «ach irigting 40 ha The operation and maintenance services are all contacted out 10 an independent contactor whose oles to keep the irgaton system) ‘running, Government support the farmers through {fll rnge of extension services, The installation ‘costs were estimated to be around USS! 000s, Unfortunately there is very litte information available shout how successful nd sustainable this kind of development ean be There are worrying signs thatthe approach may be too “top-down

“Ti ky NGA

“Tickle and emitters that can deliver small frequent or dip iigation comprises systemof pipes tigations to individual plants Thistechnology can

provide farmers with a method of precise contol ‘oer the timing and amount of iigation aso they can easily meet the crop water demand without wasting water Wastage can ony occur if the system is Ff running for too long or there re leaks in the pipes ‘Trickle irrigation is not yet widely used on a world seale, and covers less than 0.1 percent of irigsted land Even in Israel, where mich ofthe «al research and development was done and water is very scare, trickle has not Mourshed as much as right he thought Sprinkle irrigation stil provides ‘more than 70 percent of Israel's gation because ‘iss stil considered to bea most efficient method ‘of iigaton and one that is Financially viable Claims made about crop yields and water saving ‘eed toe judge with cae Sales people often imply there is something magic about trickle irigation

Trang 24

Faswens Sve Ten own Posie w Gi ‘A shal-sedslrlgeion projet was exabishedon the outskirts of Khumasl for 8 group of women owing vepetabies or the local markets Tho Shame uses open inigation hanes supohng ‘many pls, oss than 0.1 na each ned By ‘ferent person, The scheme wes dined ara bute supely war ona lana basis ana each eran was given an alotod ime wnen she wou ‘eceWeuatar The women ajecediathe schems Sanden that he oaton was unworkable berayee "hy Mở lo efohchousatoddand tral ook pity over inigaion They soked Đm ama de

problem inemselves by balding smal storage fans onthe fame, The slowed tr en irae avalon to gate ae em tormeane

‘ope hon was convenion! other

in India where farmers have gone from surface irrigation to tickle and have bypassed sprinkle nec it is considered an inflexible system for se ‘on small pls Local manufacture of trekle parts ‘hasencouraged tain farmers to ake up the method where they are assured of spare pats, ‘A further advantage of tiekle isthe ease with which it canbe operated Iisa pipe system and so can he switched on an off easily The potential for ‘making timely and adequate irigations as wel as for reducing water wastage is good, The challenge isto realize that potential,

‘Trickle for smallholders?

A critical issue forsmallholdrssthe cost of tickle lnrgaton It does tend to reqite a larger capital tly than most oer methods ofiigation, The cost may well he justified by improved erop production and hence financial re1uns for farmers, The high inital cos isa result othe set nate of the system its reliance on precision-engineered ‘components and need for water filtration all of which ean be expensive

“The cost of a trickle system isd

crop type, fow spacing and the total field area irigated System costs can range from USSI (0) 300 pera (Comish 1998) In addition the systems ‘Require skilled management fo effective operation and maintenance ~ fiers regite regular leaning ‘ystems may requite periodic ushing to prevent build-up of slime Equipment must be tegulaey inspected to identify and replace damaged ‘components, The combination of high cost and demanding technical management means that crmined by Mader technologies

conventional tickle technologies are normally considered to be inappropriate for resource poor, smallholder farmers

‘Trickle experience from outside the region Little has been reported on the use of tickle irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa Theres, howeve growing experience of its use in other developing ‘countries In India, trickle irrigation has been itroduced for high value crops (vegetables, lowers, spices) n some ofthe move arid parts of the country Where watris sarc In 1993 twas reported Singh ‘eral that oser 30.000 ha were boing imigated by trickle gation, this has now sen 0 over 225 008) ha, This substantial increase in the use of tickle methods is not so much a result of market demand ‘ur the low-cost ofthe systems, whic are heavily subsidized by the Indian Government Over te past, ten years more than 100) companies have heen set up fo produce triekle equipment Claims of water savings as hig as 30-60 percent and yield increases ‘of 20.40 percent have been made, Success was however, masked by heavy subsidies, Even with subsidies the systems were too expensive for most small farmers Trickle systems were also thought to be too complicated to operate and maintain and not easily divisible to fit small plots (Polak and Sivanappan 199%),

Iurwouine mario ueTdon

Most smallholdersin sub-Saharan Afrcause surface lnrgation metho and distribute water using open channels, When sever smallholders use the same Water source and distribution system there are greater risks of failure The result all t00 often is poor water distribution and uneeliable and Inadequate water supplies 1 the field ‘Most smallholder irigation schemes use open channels to supply water because they are considered cheap and simple to use In elit from 1 management point of view, this type of erigation is the most complex and inflexible of supply stems Open channels can only he used for fixed Schedules, flows are often unelable and inadequate and distribution between the various canals soften diioult to manage, Even the choice of gales (weirs and sluies) for discharge and water level contol ca exacerbate the problems leading 0 th classic top-end versus tail-end” problems of water distribution along eats

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Sialtholder eigation technolo: prospects for sub Saharan Ake 8 ‘Canal management canbe simpli through we

of relatively simple technologies, such as fixed regulators (e.g sod eit), oF by biking sal storage reservoirs along the canals or ceplacing cal ith pines

Storage reservoirs

‘Constructing small storage reservoirs along a eanat system oF on fanmis means Famers can take water snd when they nex and suppers ean supply asad whet isconvenien to ther, The restrvoits ‘work n very much he same way as domestic water storage The simplest example of this is water storage in dams, wore wate is held back inte of food for use in the der seasons, Storing water tundergrourd is much the same idea, The ground ‘canvenicmtly holds the water so hat iis asilabie for pumping when the Famer chooses 0 inigate, Storage in the supply system ise has heen widely expfoited in the Sudan and in schemes in rome Nigeria Tiss usualy storage overs shox pesiod wf 24 hours Although itadds tothe cost oa Seheme the benefits in terms of reduced water wastage cat be significant

Burying pipelines wo replace eanals offers an opportunity to simplily water management und reduce wastage (Bentum and Smout 1994) They tse examples in Banglalesh for much of their ‘conclusions bonefits were reported on the benefits of pipe spss, Siar lia (Carmphel 1984) and in Sei Lana (Mervian (987), Merriam has always argued that buried pipe disvibution systems for Surfeeivgaton epresen an iniermediaesoltion hetweun lower-cos eaihen channels and the more expensive sprinkle and rcklespstems Denefits include:

+ Systems hecome demand rather thas supply briented when pipes are used, Pipe systems respond rapidly to changes in water demand + There is edced wastage, greater leibility reliability of supply mồ

"` ‘moved round a commana rea more rapidly than wth channel,

+ Less lind i ahem up wit dhe irigation system,

Pipe systems are generally thought to be expensive, This ter is relative in teris of the savings made inland and wate Che simplification fof management practices means thatthe ational cost muy sell be jase, However, there i ile {evidence ofthese systems being used in sh Saharan Aries

"` Avice?

Modern tcolgies undoubtedly have the poeta tw raise the productisity of water and labour ‘eetinialy, they atest suited tconditons where water is scree andthe opportunity ost of labour are high, Modern technologies have yet to be seriously vested and evaluated in the region, There is also voncern that theit introduction into —— interests rather than need This can lead to sis driven mote hy commercial inappropriste Experi mbabwe are of panicular interest Success inthis country is clearly linked to the long history of sprinkle imigation nd soppan ‘hyoughout the country by the private sector The success oF the small Chitora scheme, Zimbabwe ray be due in par to young peuple whe are willing tevaccept new methods of working, This may’ bean insportant point o be bore in mind by developers when persuahing farmers (0 change or take up modem systems, ‘What is clear is that medera systems are oly avcessle to farmers who can afford to buy the dnd who ae growing cus ets such as vegetables Frits and Mowers prowidingsuficen returns top foe the investment, Farmers will make the

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Shetoleririgation ene

Ase eutzosomy

1 te investment costs sd the inherent sks of conventional trickle and sprinkle i high for mos smallholders are there any low-cost ieratves? Mos of he invatons inthis aston hve been in trickle and to some extemt sprinkle inigation India, Nepal and China stand out as countries that hae sought w promote the use of how ‘cost systems by smalolders, These countries hive ‘established national manufacturing capacity and placed emphasis on “simple” spsters that do no rely ‘nautomaiceontol orate labour si Low-cost systems attempt to retain the benetis ‘of conventional systems whilst removing the fctors

devices, imeventing their uptake by poor smallholders purchase cost, the requirement of a pressurized Supply the asoxited pumping costs complesiy ‘of operation and maimenance Low-cost ystems are not widely reported inthe terre although this could be a consequence of anizationsand agencesinvolved in their development and promotion, whic are rnainly dovelopmen: NGOs, ater than aeflection fof their potential value for smallholders Some ‘equipment has boon developed ad tested by NGOs and church afiated groups bot seh centres ave ‘often not sell resourced to engape an wide-scale ‘production and marketing of ther pros

Several low-cost trickle technologies and sone sprinkle systems have been developed, whet ane now in use in several counties, In nost eases these are imed a improving distribution an application fof water, Avlempls have been made to esake them 4s Simple as possible so that shey can be Imanvfactured at lower cost and operated and mainined esily, Systems are usally sol in kit Form for relatively smal reas of land (ep 25 1 “This too helps to keep the ost down and the dais that farmers can at the Kits they receive cash

from the increased profits on thle crops This, incremental development is not easly accomplished ‘wth normal eomimercal systems, particnlaly when 5 poset fo Saharan Af a Low-cost technologies

[pumps are needed 10 pressurize the systems Law fost can meaN loa ial capital lay rar than Jow-cos per hectare, Some recent innotations ae given inthe following sections

‘Bucket kits developed by Chapin

‘Those are manfactured hy Chapin Watermaties, USA, Fach hit supplies water o 180 IS my hers Jaid ona Tm rsised bod, eroping just 15 mộ Capi estimates that his company has donated 15 000-20 9oO bucke Kiso differen programmes án Arca, These his are given tothe projects and sold othe wsers foe USS7, When the cos is worked bul fora hectare it comes a USS4 66a, which is ‘ot s0 low, However it the low incremental cost ‘hat cals farmers to begin sing his syste, Een LUST per ki isa subsidized price and itis argued har hiss bot sustainable development Equipment Js imported and distibuted at his price by mission stations and aid programmes USAID bas already funds the distibation of Chapin's kts and KARL (Kenya Agricultural Research Authority) is slat the een Chapin bas aso promoted larger one-qurter acre 4.1 ha) kits which Intemational Development Enterprises replicates swith is low-cost, locally manufaciared kis, Wayon wheels

“The "wagon whee” system are found jn Wester Cape, South Afri, They comprise a cental water ‘ak wih laterals rating as spokes to length of about 5m, Each wheel irigales circle of about Soe

Invigation kits (developed by IDE)

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+ Bucket kits These ate for home gardens and were hosed on the Chapin Bucket System and cost approsimately USSS, Each comprises 3 2O ie household ickot stalled on & pe at Shoulder height, The bucket ified with 3 10m Tatra line and ile 0 (0 Tour snes a day ‘The single lateral fine has 26 miero-tuhes Autachal and eaeh sens four vegetable plats,

inigating SO 0% enough to prenide vegetables for far

+ Drum kits se 4 200-hie dram made of ses or plastic and costs around USS25 and inigates 2 125 me pot, Water is supplied theough single Fier and supplies ive 10 natal exch fied with 26 micro tabes

+ Micro sprinkler kits ace suitable for farmers

With sees 10 a pressurized water supply Puch comprises 15 meno spines with laterals and can gate up 0 250 mat acost of USS2S tis ange of

well suited ta small garden gro segetables,

+ Overhead sprinkler kits comprise two sprinklers on tipo with pipes snd rely on the availability of a pressurized water sappy ea & domestic Del KW (0.5 hp) pun The 60st Is {USS30 with the pump iis estimated to cost {USSI20 11s well suited vo Felt crops ste as heat, green gram and sos beans,

“The kits were all designed to be incremental allosrng farmers to stare with sal kit andl then ‘pana by investing profits derive from the stop sales The divisiiity af the ystems asa means af reducing the initial and subsequent capital investment is a vital part of making ch spstens available 10 poor farmers who cannot attord significant capitaleypenliure Lateral are designed to be moved, which can significantly reduce the mount of equipment cee To Nepal aiypical ecko userhas invested about 18826 for the tekle system, USSIS for otter ings, wses Fail labour (ie inthe of-season), and increases hive incon Tram sas cropping from azound S10 wana S100 (per capita GNP in Nepal sstound $200), ADE tspically works with wo types offers those whe are alway giowing commercial crops, and subsist

nee farmers, In mast cases, he jcommersial farmess ae able 18 ake immediate iulvantage of the system henetts, Subsiste farmerscan benefit through the possibility of having

their resourees go further an gaining access to ceash economy The extent 10 which this is @

success sraegy is noc Row,

Lowscont ecologies

IDE tutly vecagnize that coming up with an -appopriateechotogy 6 sil pat of the salaon Focus ison reducing cosishy using foal alae materials involving local manufacturers an dealers ‘and placing emphasis om sustained marketing ad einoasration so tht the manufacture and supply (ofthe equipment i commercially attractive, IDE has developed « highly effective strategy For mans marketing of low cos iacome-zeneraing technologies in developing countries, The basso thsi tha:

+ technology mist be fondle wo the Farmer and dust have a very high return on investment Over ‘he shor ter:

+ suanufucuring shouldbe done locally by privat, sn-pofit ents + dealership network shovld he developed with ‘he manufacturers that ean deliver goods 0

remote areas of the country for a reasonable profit local experi in installation an repair ness to bye developed though ining,

+ 2;massive public information campaign needs to be conducted to simulate demand for the produ upto 8 ststainable level

By Following this steategy a sustainable delivery Jnfeastructre can be put i place, Demand for the technologies fas a chance of inereasing together ith income that can suppor this infasiuctre Using this strategy IDE bas already hal great seat of sucess ith the marketing of ese paps in Arica The intention ow seems labo to promote tho same mal fo fss-cos igdion systems F

kits (developed by Nai)

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Shaler irrigation ehnolog: prospect for sab Saharan Aiea 2 West Africa experience

An PAQMapanese funded programme is investigating the potential fr smallholder iigaton ‘sing & combination of surface ierigaton methods and water distribution using pipes (FAO 2000) A ‘Wide range of ideas is under evalustion ata trning school in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, which includes the use of low head tanks, simple dippers ‘oe applying water and the use of hose pipes The inention is to find suitable systems that help 0 reduce water wastage in water shor areas, and ‘whic athe same time are low in cost and simple tous Local materials such as PVC piping isbeing ‘sed with simple connections so that components can be resourced locally rather than relying on fmported materials The tests are stil at an eal stage and it willbe some time before they are ested and evaluated in the field Many other examples of various technologies ‘being adapted for use by smallholders are listed in the epor of a workshop organized in Ousgadougou bby IPTRID and FAQ in 1998,

‘Technical studies wre repoted bự Mile and || TREen (1889) 9 SH Lanka an Bateelr ota pc

Systeme for smathelaers In both eases the -9elorsgtahated 'ebed onimpoied hợp cơm Commercial ele tapes afhoug bo syste ‘wore IW head and has vory simple titan, Í _ Bstchelor etal conclude tat even wih these ipifeaon ho oguprent was too exporsio

| and aiicult to obtain Neither study led on to

heo Some common charaeteristies of low-cost systems

Low-cost systems have several characteristics in ‘+ ‘These sytemsare designed specifically for small plots, which can be added to as and when the Farmer chooses, Low-cost systems ate aimed spocificaly at smallholders, Tey ae usually in kit form for small plots from just 15 m? up to 1000 to 2 00 a + They use low pressure (or head), Lowering pressure reduces the energy needed to lift the Water and lessens the burden on farmers particularly if the water is lifted by hang

‘Whereas commercial systems operate around 10 m head, Tow-cost systems usually work sound 2-1 m head A eased bucket, oil drum fr other storage tank may provide enowgh pressure and could be filled manually Low ‘operating heads mcans that any’ head loss along the lateralis a larger percentage of the total ‘operating pressure and has a direct effect on ‘emir low rates, Thiscan be overcome to some extent by keeping laterals short

Some irrigation precision is lost Operating at Tow pressure can mean a loss of irrigation precision This ean also happen using low-cost emiters Many manufactures cenit, sch asorificesoroles punched have chosen to use ino the lateral Its not alway’ posible to form the holes accurately The result can be lược ‘variations in discharge along a lateral aya resolt of different sized holes, Changes in pressure long a lateral exacerhte this problem Some ‘manufacturers supply their normal mites ‘Chapin’s bucket kit) that end 0 be more costly “This cum increase the cost ofthe system because ‘he emitrs are built into the pipe wall and any manual cleaning of clogged emitters is not possible Precise irgation may not be as important to smallholders sis to farmers inthe developed ‘world Tis depends on how múch precision is lost and it may well be that low-cost system, although not perfect, are far better at applying "water than the other methods used by farmers ‘The farme’s ability to manage the irrigation application properly is more important than ‘worrying about some of the systems technical shortcomings

“They use simple filtration Clogging ofthe very small flow pats in dhe individual emits the Single greatest problem of any wickle system, ‘To minimize this risk, conventional trickle systems rely ona primary fine wire-mesh filter nd in some cases (depending on water source) uditional fitaton through a sand medium is necessary The filters are a high-cost item They reuite careful routine maintenance and impone ahead los, an therefore need additonal enere input

Low-costsystems use simple cloth ae wiresmesh fikers to prevent large particles entering laterals In adi te systems using simple oles in the lateral ely onthe farmer using a pin o fine wire

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Ive 2500 emiers to maintain, but would he

tnvealistie on lager systems, Cleaning by hand iso possible on most comercial tickle tape hesause ofthe way its manvlactared

+ Movable laterals are often used Some technologies reduce the cost of equipment Trough use of a single ater ierigate ven row crops the lateral ing moved by hand between cách row IDE uses this ides to reduce costs although early Israel use of ice systems sed the same approgc READLE WUNs

‘Over the past decase, «small, but significant revolution has been taking place in smaller irrigation in the developing world with the introduction of the teadle pump This simple, Duman-posered desice can he manufactured and Iaintained at low-cost in tural workshops in developing comatries Acceptance of these pumps in Bangladesh, wheres as Fes developed nthe cay eighties, hasbeen described as extaondinay "` country, Farmers have spent USS40 milion on treadle pam approsimately USS3S each (WML 2008), Their use in Arcs growing and a receat pprisl of their potential has just been published ‘Kay and Brahe 2000) Sore 10.600 pumps are refered to have been sold across West East and southern Afrcs since 1997 ata cont of USSSO-120, Most are used lor vegetable prexkiction sid enable sinalhoders ta enter the mathe econo “Theexperience of nzoicing ele pumps into Africa serves asa useal movel fr the iteoduction ‘of other isgaton technologies “Tread pumps work on te principle of suction BỊ trừng cylinder ad piston to draw water trom esbutee below ground evel «giver or shallow groundwater I was originally developed for the hand pumping of domestic water and has been KH adapted for use in irigation where auch sreatr volume of water is noeded, by changing the diving power from aras and hands to feet and leas These are more powerful muscles and are capable of liting uc more water Twa pistons ar used ‘ach connected to a teadle on which the operator stands an presses them up and dows in a rhythmic The pumps were intaly imported Now most tweale pumps are mapetactured locally although they do ned special ooling to prsiuce goo ality pumps The emphasis son selling pupsto farmers ‘ma commercial basis rather than supplying them {8 gils, For this reason the supply chain i a vital spect ofthe pumps uvcess These have been set Gp in Kenya, Zambia and sn cinties in West Arica The supply chain must also function as 2 conduit for spare pars, maimenunce services and feodhack to munutacturers The poor uptake af pumps in Zimbabwe is undoubiedly inked to the Jack of an effective supply chain Although readle pumps ate well known in the country, no agency has taken on the responsibility of wide-scale "word, and reduction isnot continbous, The evonome beneils of introducing Ieadle poms have een significant In Zambia incomes have risen more than six fold from USS125, achieved with bucket iigation on 0.25 ha of land, tw USS8S0-1 700 using tale pusyps This was tributed not only to ineressed crop yields ba aso

to being abe to increase the ar of land iigated Cropping intensy rove in some cates up to 300 percent (hee ep yea with natceable ince In the vatiey af eraps growin, Because af the Increase im water availablity farmers wore mace willing tae risks with new cops, Similar henehts have heen reported in other counties where readle pumps have been intexhiced Problems have also boon ezeated through the Inerease tn erop production Higher yells can bing shout the problem of « market shit when supply exceeds demand This isa particular problem with common houseiol crops and i is exacerbated by the wendeney of Tamers o grow the same eps a the same time of year, Exploiting more distant markets increases anspor cos and highlights the problem of poorly developed feeder roads emote

ral eas, Atlempts to use meade pumps in Africa inthe carly 19905 were less successfel than in Bangladesh, because conditions in Attica are very Aileen, The groundwater is much deeper and the ierigated land much more filly Water mast be

fushed funer free its source tothe pont of us, “The development of pressure psn his Helped 0 ‘overcome this constraint in many counties thus resuling insignificant sales of pumps over the pa

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S9 rigation technology: prospess for sub Saharan Afi 2 as rice kits and hosepipes in Zimbabwe, Kenya tnd in counties in West Aric where teal putnps

are used The argument stat once water fs bee Tittod by teeing there is every incentive 1 use it ascfetvely ss posibie, Water is usualy pumped imo tanks for distribution, although there is no reason why it cannot be pumped diteetly into the dlissibucon system, The ouput font tends to be imermitent yt ts shoulda pose t00 a teadle pump nich of a disadvantage, However, its sil eat to say if such combinations willbe use `

Enterprise Works, n NGO working in Niger, looked imo the prerequisites for uprae of weale pumps “Many of ther findings would apply equals ther Tow-cost technologies In ender for a technology’ to be commereialized and adopted it should be proce as close tthe end user as possibe, Kms be affordable forthe buyer and profitable tthe producer The technology must also funeson reliably tnd he purchaser mst be satisfied Ít 0g takes few disstsfed customers to ruin the market for 3 new predict No technotogy can be considered appropriate for all candtions This is where the identification of appropriate sites becomes important Appropriate sit criteria include:

+ market for vegetable produs usslly of higher vale "` tio of market gardeners amenable

+ adegaite Ind avilable for garden expansion, The setting up of supply eins and ensoring that tere is sufficient manufacturing capacity of high ‘enough quality to meet the demand is also essential ‘As demas something that wually needs to be Stimulated when new techsologies are introduced tore is the opportunity to balance marketing stiities wi the development ofthe supply chains Tn his way it may’ be posible 1 balance the level ff expectation created among faraiers with the scans of sist ying i

To be profitale a technology must have low vera cost that doesnot expose te owner to debt {Wms then make money, Fear offre bas ten riven people towards high tech solutions to avoid the problems of breakdown, AIL machinery fails eventually andin developing counties, Faure tens to occur sooner because mimenasice is poor and conditions more hostile The reslt is machinery riveyards that ean he sn surunding many towns ‘and villages For this reason the need for strong supply chains vo support the supply of spare pants sand maintenance must not be undeestinate,

Anouk vox LOW-COXE TECHXOLOGISS TY SUA Saanas Armies?

Comments about the role of low-cost irrigation systems in sub-Saharan Africa are similar to those made tor modem technologies, Low-cost systems have the potential o raise productivity and eance cal livelihoods Bven though eosts for these ‘echnologies may berelatvely low they are stile -eeesille to farmers ho can afford to bu’ thes Usually they aze growing cash efops sueh as ‘vegetables, fait and lowers that provie scien! etuens to pay forthe investment They fave litle toffee poor farmers und so ae unlikely tobe taken up by them without appropiate Finaneial and technic supa [Low-cost systems have yet 19 be tested and evaluated properly inthe region There are also ‘concerns shout commercial fterets encouraging farmers to use modern technologies when oer less

‘expensive options may be appropriate ‘One exception to this i Meade pumps, which awe been undergoing various evaluations in the Invratory and in de Feld ove the pas five So fat tho resus in tems of uptake and heneflts have been encouraging Their adoption by

smallholders ad the way in which support services have been developed is undoubuey a mode! tht the developers of other echnolgies might emulate,

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Smaller irrigation ehnolog: prospect for sub Saharan Aca a

Matching technologies to agricultural regions

“The most appropriate technologies to use will vary From place to place depending on @ wide range of ‘irountstanes, broad clasiication may be made ‘hased on climate, Figute 2, and the traditional agricultural background of local people, Table 3 Tinks technology options to agricultural esions and “Table links them to countries Inrigation has been associated with the ood plains of lage perennial rivers Major examples include the Niger River in Niger, Mali and nonhem

Senegal and the Juba and Shebelli Rivers in ‘Somalia, Outside Egypt is famously associated with trgaton These the region the Nile in Sudan and areas have always been prime sites for large-scale irrigation schemes and have long traditions of ‘smallholder gation, Fo instance in Niger during the wet season, floating rice is planted inthe eiver ‘be atthe beginning ofthe rans and is Nooded a herve rises, Later, rom November ta Apri, sl ‘vegetable gardens are cultivated onthe riverbanks nd alla terraces that arent flooded durin peak Now in January-February: When the floods recede crops such as sweet potatoes maize and onions are planted and irigated trom shallow groundwater Small pumps are gaining inreasing acceptance in many Countries wherever spare parts and fac! are readily available

‘This zone is characterized by very low erratic rainfall (less than 500 mm per annum), which renders purely rainfed agriculture impossibe The ‘jor agricultural activity is nomadic tock raising ‘with camels, goats, sheep and catle being the ‘principal tock In this ne the most important form ff smullolderierigation development is likely to ‘be water harvesting Spate iigation could aso be practised in occasional watercourses as well 2 Shallow grounder development

In some places such practices are raion ‘example, inthe Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia, (rainfall 300 mmiyear), fodder and food erop production depends almost entirely on seasonal Nloodwater from the River Omo and recession farming i the oldsiverchannel, Successful systems

‘ofrun-off farming have aso evolved in the adjacent Woito Vale “The techniques of nol agricultre are sil at an experimental tae in Alriea (see Tanzania bon) ‘The cess of smallholder is toa large extem dependent on the acceptability schemes in hese regions

of settlement to the noma wes who generally populate this area, Without their cooperation any imigaion development is likely to be unsuecesstul ‘Water harvesting isthe only alternative to making a living through semi-nomadie stock rising or famine relief Where these semi-nomadie people have Become destitute, as is happening in vast areas ‘of Ethiopia and Somali, they may be prepared to seule on permanent smallholder iigation schemes, ‘The future prospects for this zone are not promising because of the increasingly tight definitions of

oundaries and territories and continuing encroachment of agriculture into traditional pastures [An example of the establishment of water harvesting by semi-nomadic tribes was in Turkana in northern Kenya inthe catly 1980s There wer reports of local resistance inthe form of apathetic tite and inherent scepticism towards the idea that crops could be produced on what was traditionally regarded as grazing land Once there was demonstrable success in inoteasing fodder Production the evel of participation grew rapidly and large numberof fields were under regulae cultivation producing grain, fodder and wood Day sans

‘This zone extends over large areas of Arica It dlilfers from the desert and semi-desert zone in having a higher annual rainfall of 500-600 men {occasionally upto 1 000 mn) which falls single three to six month ong any season The main form ‘of agriculture is sedentary stock easing in some areas and arable Farming in others, The ypes of irigation likey wo succeed in these areas ae water harvesting and ieigation of river Rood plains and ‘other extensive plains, citer the wet season with bunds to control occasional Noodwaters or with exploitation of shallow groundwater throughout the

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Sialtnolder ogoion echo: pape for sb Seharan ike ” An example of success ranoÏŸ seievlore

‘comes from Burkina Faso where an NGO inated a combined apr0-foresry and water harvesting Provec fn 1979 small experimental area of micro ‘atehmets far fush wood tres was established with

Tasmee participation, The farmers involved suhsequently adopted these runott-fanning techniques and used them to improve their ritonal erosion conte atthods, thus inereasing their normal agricultural production Fields long sihandoned are being eclimel and farmers are increasing inflation through the construction of

simple contour bunds

lo his zone the annual ying is normaly, £000 2.010 mm ling either in 10 rainy seasons close forthe equator oF some long rainy sesso Ftc ronh orsouth,Thisis sillcient a gow to raed «raps in countries Burundi, Central African Republic) and one close tothe equator Rwanda, rainfed crop in.a more northerly or southerly arc, “The role of iigation in this ome isthereor (4)

ve the yield of exising crop, sch ax maize sroundaots and cotton, (b) to reduce risks by extending the length of the growing season oF fllowing a second (or tind nop to be produced in the dey season and le) © allow new areas of land tw be developed far crop production through 2 of saipy anes for dry season cropping ‘oF water contol Lor wet season rice groving, in countries with adequate sand reserves, the main emphasis should tye on the developmest of improved agronomie tectniques in rainfed agriculture However, where

riculural land & scarce andl the population 1s high there will be an inevitable on in the

elopment of i

Rwanda is prime examplcor this with an average opultion density over 200 personsikny The physical pes of sriation will largely depend on the toposraphy of the areas hut most igation will bean river land plains a extensive plains Emphasis all be ot supplementacy ington i he dry season, Followed by contol of wate inthe wel season for rice cultures Figation ‘of spall areas from channels anal non-seasonal iigation in lod plains sa extensive plains will the importants lacalize areas,

Hin aware bowen crt

This zoe isthe we on with mua rainfall inexcess of | S00 mm, usally falling in 80 main tset seasons This zone therefore ifTers fom ers inthat tis wel throughout most af the year and his ho major consents a rainfed agriultre,exeept ‘ring the shor imtervening inition sues will be concemed dey season The major sith ater contr

fd drainage eater than with iigation per se although supplementary iigation can be practised Partially for crops scl as vegetales grow in the shor dy season as in pas of Nigeria The mest important ill be small reas commanded from wveirs and channels, sich as the inland valley stamps of Sierra Leone, Liberia snd Goinea, In the wet seas, deeper rice my be ano i the sume small swamps In Togo and Benin he main form of isgation will involve smal to medium- sized cat dams commanding the downstream areas hy channels and with various biting chnigues, tor inigating upstream of the ma, In coastal eepions there are lage areas of rice grown in the mengrose ‘svanps and in iver estates duting the Wel season Sierra Leone has 20 000 ha of mangrove sans ropped with 3 potential or 74000 Hun

“The high topical an subwopical plateaus, which are greater than about 1 S00 m above se Tevel ae huaglefzod hy low lemperdlues, parlevlaly in the cool seisons sway from the equal, which ex rast the choice of eos, Rainfall varies fromm 00 me part The mo suitable form 0Ý migaion vi ary depending on topography and rainlil bụt wilt nerally involve small areas commanded by ‘hanes, nthe high veld of Zimbabwe lam dam have heen constructed in small many inl

etchnts that are used far smallholder imigation and sock watering The techniques employed i Zimbabyre tend 10 use modern technwlogy wil sprinkler ‘erigation hing very important tn the Rump srt of Malawi sil channels lead way From sreams to suitable areas for imigation, whieh ay be severalkilometreaway In many of the aes (eg South Tanzania, Zambia Malawi) supplementary ization of cash ctops sich a tea fand coffee during the extended dry season #

Practise commercially and opportunities exis

Trang 34

30 Matching ecole to agricultural eglons “Table 4 Summary of smatholdririgaton technologies by count

‘County River Boog pais

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Sallalder øigulo ecology: prospects or sub-Saharan Aca 3

How fast can smallholder irrigation develop?

Isis important that agencies wishing to support inigation development have some idea of how fast Fue iigation development can take place so that the agencies can pln fo the labour and technical resources they will need to provide Given the ‘current socio-economic constrains on smallholders the question is dificult one to answer Removing ‘constants can encourage farmers 19 move into rigaion and speed up the process but this is not ‘easy and so major changes are unlikely in the foreseeable future ‘One option is to Took at what has happened in the past decade a an indicator of what might happen inthe future

REVIEW OF EXPERIENCE FHOM SEBSATARAS APIC [A secent review of IFAD's smallholder projects (lateral review 2000) is of particular interest not only Because of ts wide geographical spread bul because it highlights the challenges that face any imerationa agency wishing to suppor smallholder igation in what is essentially the private sector [As the majority of such investments tend to sơ to the larger schemes involving communities, rather than 0 suppor individual, they have inerenly higher risks built nto them, Past experience has showin that individual farmers developing iigation ‘on their own or with family have a much lower isk fof failure than those wh work in groups oF ‘omuitiesrequiting collective esponsibility and sharing of the assets Ty 1986 IFAD launched its special programme Forcounires feted by drought and desertification insub-Saharan ican in response tothe devasatng droughts of the 19805 with asubprogramme, Sal ‘scale ligation and Water Contol The principal ‘objectives were fo increase smallholder productive ‘capacity, improve household food security and build the capacity of farmers to take over scheme ‘operation and maintenance responsibilities by involving local communities This was to be achieved through the development of wide Spectrum of simple low-cost technologies The option ofa paieipatoy demand-riven approach ‘was considered essential for ensuring sustainability,

Under this approach, i was assumed that ‘beneficiaries would be hey partes involved inthe selection of activites, their design and subsequent ‘implementation Tn all, more than 80 000 were 10 benefit,

including an appreciable number of women heads ff houscholds, an an area of 20-000 ha would be imigated The schemes included + Individually owned systems (7 percent of sehemes) Small mobile pump sehemes or ‘various lift systems using seasonal river Now, stored water in ponds, or shallow aquifers + Community-based schemes with partial ‘control of water (21 percent) Water harvesting,

inland bottom valley schemes, and flood recession and cone in West Alia

+ Communal gravity or pumping schemes {46 percent), Punping systems operated by the villagers, mostly developed in West Altica _ravity smallholder irrigation schemes based on the diversion of water stored in small das (Ghana); and collective tube-wells with submersible pumping systems using deep sroundwaer (Senegal, Niger),

A review of the projects has produced some ‘valuable insights into the challenges that this kind ofintervention fees Many ofthe projests were ill boing implemented and soa full assessment of the impact was premature, Ie was possible to see the progress made and identify the constrains that had hampered their implementation Some of the key Findings of the review ineluded

Impaet on simallholder Hving conditions

In most cases the projects hada favourable impact in that they generally expanded the ieigaed ara, increased water availabilty and improved its use

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‘nad ticulty in aking the iil investment from their own resources, benefited significantly ‘Smaltholders were able to buy small mobile pups and inthis way avoid heing dependent on private ‘wealthy pump owners, whom they formerly ad {pay one thin! of thee harvests in exchange for eval of similar equipment In Senegal, farmers ‘were able to increase their irigated plots and the ‘quality of construction was impeoved making ‘maintenance easie ln Ghana, farmers benefited Som itgation during the dry season a saw this, fas the single most important factor in the achievement of household Food security:

Impact on women’s aecess to natural resources Almost all projets had as goal the intodution of increased equity and security in access to developed Jand, especially by wore in Tanzania and Ghana, bout a third ofthe irrigated plots were allocated to ‘women, Inaiion, women reportedly contributed ‘ich oftheir labour towards scheme sonsirtion in onler to assure themselves of plot of extea income, However, i was mainly men who decided fn land tenure issues rather than women (The Gambia, Mali, Senegal and Ghana), This sill continues tobe the case and dhe projects have not hanged this,

Farmers’ participation

Conventional wisdom calls for farmers to become the principal partners and decision-makers in & project hecause this is perceived as the best way of ‘ensuring ownership and development success, For this reason participatory approaches were a cental plank of the planning phase In practice, however, the projets were implemented under a projected rather thn demand-driven approach Participation was saertied in favour of speeding constvction activities inorder to develop as many sebemes as possible Even in cases where participatory processes were used, schemes were usally designed in response to requests received by Project “Managers These wer often based onthe perception ‘of landowners and vllaze chiets had of provtes, rather than those ofthe direct beneficiaries,

Generally, people implementing the projects did not have enough experience of participative techniques or were not convinced of their importance and paid only lip service to the process Farmers were nit always willing to consibte their

Hos a smaller iigaon ely?

{an engineer agronat tld he anthropologist that he weed in cos colaboraløn vi the farmers every time be wont out he Hold By ‘cho sctualy meant hat he was accompanied by tne marager of bo pefmeterand he hen {he county goverment

Im anoterintarce, aan itoducony meting of experts, who were gang to work topeer on an Irigaton projec te anwoplogstwasiriroducod le thefielne lohergslenengeaervhosed, | fas tey shook hand, ‘What ae you Sing he |

tr dort ngạd you We know everyting we od From Brown and Neots (1992) about for fee pretrring instead to work om their farms or fr of-tarm income- generating aeúY is This was contrary tothe estly expectations that people would he willing Io invest hei shor and this would engendera cases labour had to be paid for, which made feeling of ownership In many translating theory into practice difficult Time was also a major constraint The demands of farmer Ppanicipation, which require ie to evolve did not fit with the short time constraints that sencies normally place on project investment and “consiniction possesses, Theres wast the pace ff development was much slower than orisinally anticipate, “Many project filed ogo farmers to print ‘They were not convinced of the need to take full responsibilty for bringing land into production, which in mos cases they didnot oven They ld hot take on the responsibility Tor operation and Imainienance, which was viewed by farmers us & ‘government provided source of ensplosment snd income rather than asl help acti, Ieressinaly farmers are becoming aware hat substantial suppor and subsidies can no loager be expected fom the svernnen ad that they mist begin orelyon isi ‘own etfs Suitable technologies

‘When dealing with communities 7 environments, existing production systems sive Tamers some basi security rom starvation, even if they have low yields Any extemal intervention Should be developed around existing systems thor ‘han bringing in new technologies Expectlions of cropping intensity, yield and reduced water wastage

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Sinaltolde gation echo: prspets oro Saharan Ae 2 neel lo he realisie The outene is determined

more by the capacity of small-scale farmers to adopt new technologies where sorvies ate erratic and marker prices are bigh, eather than on what is potentially possible [Alihoxgh irigation s mount to reduce sk, new technology introduces other isk tha might expose farmers tva higher level of isk han efor Project, reviews have showa that this extra risk Fall ‘exclusively onthe farmers without beng shared by the govesnment, This has resulted in conics

between tions, sad in

farmers shandoning projet Imolgies proved 10 be ‘hse initsted o improve existing Famine systems ul which continue 9 be under th fll contol of

the communities ar individuals, sueh a8 flood recession improvement individ low it pumping systems and abstraction and diversion of wate from rivers The risks increased considerably shen ‘scale putnping from ewes for whole

‘communities was introduced “The den of using “low-cost technology” is atactive 19 donors and farmers allke although ‘ean and does eveate problems, Ther i usualy sn -assinption that once a scheme has been planned, the design and contraction isa sraighllorwaed process and the outcome is @-well-engincered System of supply that fasimers

confidenes, This is not always the ease and the phrase “low-cost cecinalogy ‘becoming aeuphemisan for poor engineering design and construction, Canalembunkments me olien ot ‘compacted properly and sa they do not lst ery long Concrete is not prepared properly and ‘compacted during placement with the result hat t ‘cumbes during use and o structures donot give adequate service the technology daes not Work propey, the seeds of Faia ae lteady sen, ‘The principal reason for sch af the poor ‘of suitably is in danger of

engineering wis serious short on engineers and technicians who take design work and supervize ly s0 as to produce sound

Prospects for development

Many counisies south ofthe Sahara are hecominy increasingly dynamic response 10 more liberal marketing and pricing policies and greater ‘competition between privat sector interest There ‘re concen at while the tate may witha rm

& numberof fusions that may be better handled hy the private seotor, assistance for smallholder leigation schemes targeting the poorest of the ruta populasion ca be expected to emsin a importan ‘ren for public sector investment sd support Without

transition period, the rural poor will become increasingly vulnerable othe aew emphasis on an ‘open ecoaomy” environment, and hopelessly sted assistance, at least during & Simple and appropriate water control bseoming beuer toan, and some decline i unt costs of development canbe expected 2s smallokleriigation systems gain gyeater rein farmers’ awareness of tei ae a responsibilities in relation fo water magagement increases Te institutional capacity of government NGOs an the private sector work to

improving These fators wold suppor: continued investnents in smallholder ierigation, especially since without investment prospects for ineressing food production and in water infzstensture the

inproving food security ave remote in many ‘counties Table Š summarizes the technical and insitational issues and pives an indication of ests `

The following summarizes some ofthe key lessons learned from the IFAD review

+ The identitication of local community represenatives or farmers organizations capable ma 2 smallholder irrigation development process where each parr haste ‘rot ad therefore has the capt offence righ to age th Jocsion ano shate in the responsibil a Aaditon, attention shou he given to mtebing the sale and scope of & project with the inaplemenvation capacity of lol insitons smd the farmers’ capacity 10 participate +A deisiied plan and procedures should he prepared for the tasks expected oF thes This ‘woild not be @ simple detailed st of piysical antisites, bun rather plan af who should do wht, when and how + A distinction should be made between projets ising Io improve existing prtives uner the responsi of tana emit Irom those introducing new ideas and teclmvlog

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Teaionl Community Bored Velruens NG reessseyconrunty

Walermaraparen Neco tesa tpn usage cont (USS) _ 68001006

Figure 4 Rates of irigation development in selected countries

+ More attention shouldbe paid tothe criteria for site selection, targeting and implementing Procedures Several rounds of project design and ‘consultation From groups of farmers isto be forthooniing, are needed ifthe tustand assistance “Time isnoeded10 apply a participatory approach and to create necessary capacities at the local level +The fee labour that beneficiaries are expected to contribute should be no more than the ‘equivalent of 1S percent of the total costs I is ‘essential that this comrbution is recognized as being a the expense of other demands on their + Appropriate methods of construction appear 10 be those that optimize the use of small local contractors and the labour othe beneficiaries, combined wit independent professional checks on the design and construction standards to ensure these eonform to speifiatons,

+ tis essential to prepare an agreement between the sponsoring agency and the beneficiaries specifying their respective roles, contributions nd obligations during constuction and ltr for ‘operation and maintenance, Cost recovery and 1 089000 ots cso der ira 5 Summary of IFAD funded smallholder developments nea and pra aT REIS aT BOE Sa ing wpe Sal Sapte "¬ tnalptp egmsbihy

etal mnteg recesary

fed depton Magu tk, Nosh a otere a sk ig ok Sang nection 3900108000

financing mechanisms and procedures ate sill major problem in many countries and still need 1 be worked out Agreement must he reached ‘on appropriate mechanisms based om the ‘technologies used the eropping system and the ‘organizational features of farmers,

+ Forming Water Users’ Associations (WUAS) and transferring project assets to them proved 0 be Jong and difficult process incompatible with ‘the short period has administrative, financial and legal of project implementation, This implications Therelore, adequate support is needed forth creation of WUAS and fr taining nembers and office holder sufficiently early in the course ofa project to ensure they are properly prepared to assume operation and maintenance responsibilities

1+ Itshould be taken into account that effective beneficiary involvement and development of a sense of essnership is not always achievable for every type of shee

+Other support services (agricultural extensio Input supplies, market access, rural inance land allocation te} must also be in place realistic assessment of the institutional viability of

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er igaton sch 5 prope securing mese services during implementation is essential,

`

[No resem and acearate information ssvatlable on the full exten of smallholder irgation in sub Saharan Alrca this seston am aemt is mace, sod on available dat, wo Took at what has aleady been achieved and at future possibilities om a country-by-country basis, The speed oF past development may hold clues as to how fast we an realistically expect developments tobe made inthe loa Thẻ cute of rigadion development and bow it Hạc changed over the period 1960 to 1997 is summarized by Gleick (2000) 0n a couAto-by ‘country bass using PAO data sources What sno eadily available However, the current extent of Smalholder irigation relative to larger-scale ‘developments For his i 1986 when FAO estimated she spi berween thew necessary vo 20 hack 0 For his ccuson the FAO 19N6 daa reuse Yo show ‘eeutent of solar isgaton in relation tthe

{otal developed in 1986 A comparison is made of timated potential for teigation based on available laa and water resourees (Table 6) In ation 0 ths, data from 1985 10 1997 (a 12 year period) quoted by Gieiek have heen wsed to calculate the average rate of irrigation development (Ginallholder pls large scale) in each county (se last column in Tabi 3) Asthis information provides inimporat insight nt the capi of each county ‘to expand inigaion development inthe ture, the cours have al ben ranked according to this ate ‘of development ‘The FAO consltation in 1986 conclude that in 32 of the 40 countries in sub-Saharan Africa the first priority was for rainfed agricultoral {development night counties Botswana, Burkina er, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal al Somali, igation isan essential part of any food sevurty srstegy because of the population esses andthe lack of rainfed capes FAO data also show that sub-Saharan Afiica includes 11 ofthe 16 nations of the world having less than 1 000 m'ibeadear of wa

described a “absolate water sowelg" khe food shortages area constant theat and water shortage ‘ean only increase {FAO 1998), ‘What i lear fom the dat that he penal for funher irgation development in tems of land ar and, toa lesserexten, wae svalabity is very subs Saharan Apica 3

significant even allowing for the development that has taken place over the past 1 years since 1986), Although there may be some differences aver the definition of smallholder imigation, the tablecleafy shows some 65 pereent of irigation development |sinshis sector Since theemphass inthe intervening 1M years as aso been on smallholder isgation the eve percentage may be even higher "The average rates of development of inigation toser the past [2 years (1985.97) provide an Interesting insight ino ehat bạc hen ahievel im ich sant aad «hát mi

future, OF the eight countries iemiied by FAO as being dependent on ireigation the rate of development in Botswana, Mauritania and Senegal has been zero, whereas Burkina Faso ‘Kenya, Niger Mali and Somalia are inthe wp 14 best performing countries, nfortonately, even inthe countros most sesive ‘in eigation the rates of development ate stil very ‘mons snd over 50 percent have a eae less than ‘So hale fac 3 cauntes show no grosth at all may all be that gation is at as impotant fn those counties There are some on the list however that would clearly he

resurgence of iaterest sn itrigation, The total estimated rate forthe ehole ryi0n is 43600 hư) year =a average of | 150 halear foreach county Sonne counties appear to have encouraging fates of development (eg Tanzania, Nigeria, Niger Zimbabwe ad South Africa ~ he hater wo ate special as they have substantial private inigation scotors) The question is can this rate he sustained fr increased in the future? Many development processes follow a classic "S" curte anl inlaahon Isnoexception.The curve usally has thre distinct phases:

+A preliminary lay pase atthe sar of & new Initiative when the ideas and technologies ane ively unknown and untied, + Anintermediate, apd erovth pase which kes pice whieh the area under terigaton is be expanded very participation ving by now well vied teetniques

+A tailing off into 4 ater seetion when the available land o water is nearly used up and any Funher developments are om marginal ares with less potential enti to the fate Dati ron five counties over the pero 1960 10 1997 demonsteate this, see Figure 4, Two counties are in the lower development rate group ad three

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Sera Leone ‘90 Congo Demssmke 000, Re anes ve Bina Fes se Ben - MGanhbse a0 Ho ft can smarter deve? SEmEnH Taal ‘oat —=—7 = mg ° a ° = ° se ° = a = s te te a °° ” số “6 in the higher group, In each ease its apparent

that development has past through the rapid growth [hase andi in he tiling off phase, These data are 'ypical ofall the countries listed in Table 6, which alleshibit a sila tren, The realities of these development curves add to the sow that itis factors ther than natural resourses that constrain development These include marketing infrastructure, availability of fuel and spare parts social background, labour availability pricing poliey, population density and land

availability as well asthe Knowledge and expertise in iigation technolo Five we cones