Automotive engineering powertrain, chassis system and vehicle body – part 2

Section Thirteen Section Thirteen Section Thirteen Section Thirteen Section Thirteen Vehicle control systems 391 This page is left intentionally left blank Chapter 13.1 13.1 Vehicle motion control William Ribbens 13.1.1 Introduction 13.1.2 Typical cruise control system The term vehicle motion refers to its translation along and rotation about all three axes (i.e., longitudinal, lateral, and vertical) By the term longitudinal axis, we mean the axis that is parallel to the ground (vehicle at rest) along the length of the car The lateral axis is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis and is also parallel to the ground (vehicle at rest) The vertical axis is orthogonal to both the longitudinal and lateral axes Rotations of the vehicle around these three axes correspond to angular displacement of the car body in roll, yaw, and pitch Roll refers to angular displacement about the longitudinal axis; yaw refers to angular displacement about the vertical axis; and pitch refers to angular displacement about the lateral axis Electronic controls have been recently developed with the capability to regulate the motion along and about all three axes Individual car models employ various selected combinations of these controls This chapter discusses motion control electronics beginning with control of motion along the longitudinal axis in the form of a cruise control system The forces that influence vehicle motion along the longitudinal axis include the powertrain (including, in selected models, traction control), the brakes, the aerodynamic drag, and tire-rolling resistance, as well as the influence of gravity when the car is moving on a road with a nonzero inclination (or grade) In a traditional cruise control system, the tractive force due to the powertrain is balanced against the total drag forces to maintain a constant speed In an ACC system, brakes are also automatically applied as required to maintain speed when going down a hill of sufficiently steep grade Automotive cruise control is an excellent example of the type of electronic feedback control system Recall that the components of a control system include the plant, or system being controlled, and a sensor for measuring the plant variable being regulated It also includes an electronic control system that receives inputs in the form of the desired value of the regulated variable and the measured value of that variable from the sensor The control system generates an error signal constituting the difference between the desired and actual values of this variable It then generates an output from this error signal that drives an electromechanical actuator The actuator controls the input to the plant in such a way that the regulated plant variable is moved toward the desired value In the case of a cruise control, the variable being regulated is the vehicle speed The driver manually sets the car speed at the desired value via the accelerator pedal Upon reaching the desired speed the driver activates a momentary contact switch that sets that speed as the command input to the control system From that point on, the cruise control system maintains the desired speed automatically by operating the throttle via a throttle actuator Under normal driving circumstances, the total drag forces acting on the vehicle are such that a net positive traction force (from the powertrain) is required to maintain a constant vehicle speed However, when the car is on a downward sloping road of sufficient grade, constant vehicle speed requires a negative tractive force that the powertrain cannot deliver In this case, the car will accelerate unless brakes are applied For our initial Understanding Automotive Electronics; ISBN: 9780750675994 Copyright Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd; All rights of reproduction, in any form, reserved Vehicle motion control CHAPTER 13.1 CONTROL SIGNAL ACTUAL SPEED S1 CONTROLLER THROTTLE ACTUATOR COMMAND SPEED ELECTRICAL POWER S2 SPEED SENSOR ENGINE AIR TO DRIVE AXLES THROTTLE Fig 13.1-1 Cruise control configuration discussion, we assume this latter condition does not occur and that no braking is required The plant being controlled consists of the powertrain (i.e., engine and drivetrain), which drives the vehicle through the drive axles and wheels As described above, the load on this plant includes friction and aerodynamic drag as well as a portion of the vehicle weight when the car is going up and down hills The configuration for a typical automotive cruise control is shown in Fig 13.1-1 The momentary contact (pushbutton) switch that sets the command speed is denoted S1 in Fig 13.1-1 Also shown in this figure is a disable switch that completely disengages the cruise control system from the power supply such that throttle control reverts back to the accelerator pedal This switch is denoted S2 in Fig 13.1-1 and is a safety feature In an actual cruise control system the disable function can be activated in a variety of ways, including the master power switch for the cruise control system, and a brake pedal-activated switch that disables the cruise control any time that the brake pedal is moved from its rest position The throttle actuator opens and closes the throttle in response to the error between the desired and actual speed Whenever the actual speed is less than the desired speed the throttle opening is increased by the actuator, which increases vehicle speed until the error is zero, at which point the throttle opening remains fixed until either a disturbance occurs or the driver calls for a new desired speed A block diagram of a cruise control system is shown in Fig 13.1-2 In the cruise control depicted in this figure, a proportional integral (PI) control strategy has been assumed However, there are many cruise control systems still on the road today with proportional (P) controllers Nevertheless, the PI controller is representative of good design for such a control system since it can reduce speed errors due to disturbances (such as hills) to zero In this strategy an error e is formed by PROPORTIONAL PART KPe DESIRED E THROTTLE ACTUATOR SPEED Vd Va KI∫eDT INTEGRAL PART Fig 13.1-2 Cruise control block diagram 394 SPEED SENSOR ENGINE DRIVETRAIN VEHICLE SPEED Vehicle motion control subtracting (electronically) the actual speed Va from the desired speed Vd: e ¼ Vd À Va The controller then electronically generates the actuator signal by combining a term proportional to the error ðKP eÞ and a term proportional to the integral of the error: ð KI e dt The actuator signal u is a combination of these two terms: ð u ẳ KP e ỵ KI e dt The throttle opening is proportional to the value of this actuator signal Operation of the system can be understood by first considering the operation of a proportional controller (i.e., imagine that the integral term is not present for the sake of this preliminary discussion) We assume that the driver has reached the desired speed (say, 60 mph) and CHAPTER 13.1 activated the speed set switch If the car is traveling on a level road at the desired speed, then the error is zero and the throttle remains at a fixed position If the car were then to enter a long hill with a steady positive slope (i.e., a hill going up) while the throttle is set at the cruise position for level road, the engine will produce less power than required to maintain that speed on the hill The hill represents a disturbance to the cruise control system The vehicle speed will decrease, thereby introducing an error to the control system This error, in turn, results in an increase in the signal to the actuator, causing an increase in engine power This increased power results in an increase in speed However, in a proportional control system the speed error is not reduced to zero since a nonzero error is required so that the engine will produce enough power to balance the increased load of the disturbance (i.e., the hill) The speed response to the disturbance is shown in Fig 13.1-3a When the disturbance occurs, the speed drops off and the control system reacts immediately to increase power However, a certain amount of time is required for the car to accelerate toward the desired speed As time progresses, the speed reaches a steady Fig 13.1-3 Cruise control speed performance 395 CHAPTER 13.1 Vehicle motion control Fig 13.1-3 Continued value that is less than the desired speed, thereby accounting for the steady error (es) depicted in Fig 13.1-3a (i.e., the final speed is less than the starting 60 mph) If we now consider a PI control system, we will see that the steady error when integrated produces an everincreasing output from the integrator This increasing output causes the actuator to increase further, with a resulting speed increase In this case the actuator output will increase until the error is reduced to zero The response of the cruise control with PI control is shown in Fig 13.1-3b The response characteristics of a PI controller depend strongly on the choice of the gain parameters KP and KI It is possible to select values for these parameters to increase the speed of the system response to disturbance If the speed increases too rapidly, however, overshoot will occur and the actual speed will oscillate around the desired speed The amplitude of oscillations decreases by an amount determined by a parameter called the damping ratio The damping ratio that produces the fastest response without overshoot is called critical damping A damping ratio less than critically damped is 396 said to be underdamped, and one greater than critically damped is said to be overdamped 13.1.2.1 Speed response curves The curves of Fig 13.1-3c show the response of a cruise control system with a PI control strategy to a sudden disturbance These curves are all for the same car cruising initially at 60 mph along a level road and encountering an upsloping hill The only difference in the response of these curves is the controller gain parameters Consider, first, the curve that initially drops to about 30 mph and then increases, overshooting the desired speed and oscillating above and below the desired speed until it eventually decays to the desired 60 mph This curve has a relatively low damping ratio as determined by the controller parameters KP and KI and takes more time to come to the final steady value Next, consider the curve that drops initially to about 40 mph, then increases with a small overshoot and decays to the desired speed The numerical value for this damping ratio is about 0.7, whereas the first curve had Vehicle motion control a damping ratio of about 0.4 Finally, consider the solid curve of Fig 13.1-3c This curve corresponds to critical damping This situation involves the most rapid response of the car to a disturbance, with no overshoot The importance of these performance curves is that they demonstrate how the performance of a cruise control system is affected by the controller gains These gains are simply parameters that are contained in the control system They determine the relationship between the error, the integral of the error, and the actuator control signal Usually a control system designer attempts to balance the proportional and integral control gains so that the system is optimally damped However, because of system characteristics, in many cases it is impossible, impractical, or inefficient to achieve the optimal time response and therefore another response is chosen The control system should make the engine drive force react quickly and accurately to the command speed, but should not overtax the engine in the process Therefore, the system designer chooses the control electronics that provide the following system qualities: Quick response Relative stability Small steady-state error Optimization of the control effort required 13.1.2.2 Digital cruise control The explanation of the operation of cruise control thus far has been based on a continuous-time formulation of CHAPTER 13.1 the problem This formulation correctly describes the concept for cruise control regardless of whether the implementation is by analog or digital electronics Cruise control is now mostly implemented digitally using a microprocessor-based computer For such a system, proportional and integral control computations are performed numerically in the computer A block diagram for a typical digital cruise control is shown in Fig 13.1-4 The vehicle speed sensor (described later in this chapter) is digital When the car reaches the desired speed, Sd, the driver activates the speed set switch At this time, the output of the vehicle speed sensor is transferred to a storage register The computer continuously reads the actual vehicle speed, Sa, and generates an error, en, at the sample time, tn (n is an integer) en ¼ Sd À Sa at time tn A control signal, d, is computed that has the following form: dn ẳ K P e n ỵ K I M X enÀm m¼1 P (Note: The symbol in this equation means to add the M previously calculated errors to the present error.) This sum, which is computed in the cruise control computer, is then multiplied by the integral gain KI and added to the most recent error multiplied by the proportional gain KP to form the control signal This control signal is actually the duty cycle of a square wave ðVc Þ that is applied to the throttle actuator (as explained later) The throttle opening increases or decreases as d increases or decreases due to the action of the throttle actuator The operation of the cruise control system can be further understood by examining the vehicle speed Fig 13.1-4 Digital cruise control system 397 CHAPTER 13.1 Vehicle motion control in the line of sight from source to detector The light detector produces an output voltage whenever a pulse of light from the light source passes through a slot to the detector The number of pulses generated per second is proportional to the number of slots in the disk and the vehicle speed: f ¼ NSK where Fig 13.1-5a Digital speed sensor sensor and the actuator in detail Fig 13.1-5a is a sketch of a sensor suitable for vehicle speed measurement In a typical vehicle speed measurement system, the vehicle speed information is mechanically coupled to the speed sensor by a flexible cable coming from the driveshaft, which rotates at an angular speed proportional to vehicle speed A speed sensor driven by this cable generates a pulsed electrical signal (Fig 13.1-5b) that is processed by the computer to obtain a digital measurement of speed A speed sensor can be implemented magnetically or optically For the purposes of this discussion For the hypothetical optical sensor, a flexible cable drives a slotted disk that rotates between a light source and a light detector The placement of the source, disk, and detector is such that the slotted disk interrupts or passes the light from source to detector, depending on whether a slot is f is the frequency in pulses per second N is the number of slots in the sensor disk S is the vehicle speed K is the proportionality constant that accounts for differential gear ratio and wheel size It should be noted that either a magnetic or an optical speed sensor generates a pulse train such as described here The output pulses are passed through a sample gate to a digital counter (Fig 13.1-6) The gate is an electronic switch that either passes the pulses to the counter or does not pass them, depending on whether the switch is closed or open The time interval during which the gate is closed is precisely controlled by the computer The digital counter counts the number of pulses from the light detector during time t that the gate is open The number of pulses P that is counted by the digital counter is given by: P ¼ tNSK That is, the number P is proportional to vehicle speed S The electrical signal in the binary counter is in a digital format that is suitable for reading by the cruise control computer 13.1.2.3 Throttle actuator Fig 13.1-5b Digital speed sensor Fig 13.1-6 Digital speed measurement system 398 The throttle actuator is an electromechanical device that, in response to an electrical input from the controller, moves the throttle through some appropriate mechanical linkage Two relatively common throttle actuators operate either from manifold vacuum or with a stepper Vehicle motion control motor The stepper motor implementation operates similarly to the idle speed control actuator described in Chapter 4.1 The throttle opening is either increased or decreased by the stepper motor in response to the sequences of pulses sent to the two windings depending on the relative phase of the two sets of pulses The throttle actuator that is operated by manifold vacuum through a solenoid valve is similar to that used for the EGR valve described in Chapter 4.1 and further explained later in this chapter During cruise control operation the throttle position is set automatically by the throttle actuator in response to the actuator signal generated in the control system This type of manifoldvacuum-operated actuator is illustrated in Fig 13.1-7 A pneumatic piston arrangement is driven from the intake manifold vacuum The piston-connecting rod assembly is attached to the throttle lever There is also a spring attached to the lever If there is no force applied by the piston, the spring pulls the throttle closed When an actuator input signal energizes the electromagnet in the control solenoid, the pressure control valve is pulled down and changes the actuator cylinder pressure by providing a path to manifold pressure Manifold pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, so the actuator cylinder pressure quickly drops, causing the piston to pull against the throttle lever to open the throttle The force exerted by the piston is varied by changing the average pressure in the cylinder chamber This is done by rapidly switching the pressure control valve between the outside air port, which provides atmospheric pressure, and the manifold pressure port, the pressure of which is lower than atmospheric pressure In one implementation of a throttle actuator, the actuator control signal Vc is a variable-duty-cycle type of signal CHAPTER 13.1 like that discussed for the fuel injector actuator A high Vc signal energizes the electromagnet; a low Vc signal deenergizes the electromagnet Switching back and forth between the two pressure sources causes the average pressure in the chamber to be somewhere between the low manifold pressure and outside atmospheric pressure This average pressure and, consequently, the piston force are proportional to the duty cycle of the valve control signal Vc The duty cycle is in turn proportional to the control signal d (explained above) that is computed from the sampled error signal en This type of duty-cycle-controlled throttle actuator is ideally suited for use in digital control systems If used in an analog control system, the analog control signal must first be converted to a duty-cycle control signal The same frequency response considerations apply to the throttle actuator as to the speed sensor In fact, with both in the closed-loop control system, each contributes to the total system phase shift and gain 13.1.3 Cruise control electronics Cruise control can be implemented electronically in various ways, including with a microcontroller with special-purpose digital electronics or with analog electronics It can also be implemented (in proportional control strategy alone) with an electromechanical speed governor The physical configuration for a digital, microprocessor-based cruise control is depicted in Fig 13.1-8 A system such as is depicted in Fig 13.1-8 is often called a microcontroller since it is implemented with a microprocessor operating under program control The actual Fig 13.1-7 Vacuum-operated throttle actuator 399 CHAPTER 13.1 Vehicle motion control ROM RAM AB VEHICLE SPEED SENSOR I/O INTERFACE DB MICROPROCESSOR– BASED CONTROLLER CB DRIVER CIRCUIT FOR ACTUATOR THROTTLE ACTUATOR Fig 13.1-8 Digital cruise control configuration program that causes the various calculations to be performed is stored in read-only memory (ROM) Typically, the ROM also stores parameters that are critical to the correct calculations Normally a relatively small-capacity RAM memory is provided to store the command speed and to store any temporary calculation results Input from the speed sensor and output to the throttle actuator are handled by the I/O interface (normally an integrated circuit that is a companion to the microprocessor) The output from the controller (i.e., the control signal) is sent via the I/O (on one of its output ports) to the so-called driver electronics The latter electronics receives this control signal and generates a signal of the correct format and power level to operate the actuator (as explained below) A microprocessor-based cruise control system performs all of the required control law computations digitally under program control For example, a PI control strategy is implemented as explained above, with a proportional term and an integral term that is formed by a summation In performing this task the controller continuously receives samples of the speed error en, and where n is a counting index (n ¼ 1, 2, 3, 4,.) This sampling occurs at a sufficiently high rate to be able to adjust the control signal to the actuator in time to compensate for changes in operating condition or to disturbances At each sample the controller reads the most recent error As explained earlier, that error is multiplied by a constant KP that is called the proportional gain, yielding the proportional term in the control law It also computes the sum of a number of previous error samples (the exact sum is chosen by the 400 control system designer in accordance with the desired steady-state error) Then this sum is multiplied by a constant KI and added to the proportional term, yielding the control signal The control signal at this point is simply a number that is stored in a memory location in the digital controller The use of this number by the electronic circuitry that drives the throttle actuator to regulate vehicle speed depends on the configuration of the particular control system and on the actuator used by that system 13.1.3.1 Stepper motor-based actuator For example, in the case of a stepper motor actuator, the actuator driver electronics reads this number and then generates a sequence of pulses to the pair of windings on the stepper motor (with the correct relative phasing) to cause the stepper motor to either advance or retard the throttle setting as required to bring the error toward zero An illustrative example of driver circuitry for a stepper motor actuator is shown in Fig 13.1-9 The basic idea for this circuitry is to continuously drive the stepper motor to advance or retard the throttle in accordance with the control signal that is stored in memory Just as the controller periodically updates the actuator control signal, the stepper motor driver electronics continually adjusts the throttle by an amount determined by the actuator signal This signal is, in effect, a signed number (i.e., a positive or negative numerical value) A sign bit indicates the direction of the throttle movement (advance or retard) Index Electrically actuated air-control valve, 65 Electro-discharge texturing (EDT), 646 Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, 267–8 Electron gun, 799 Electronic control system, 60 Electronic control systems, 585 Electronic differential lock, 246 Electronic engine control system, 78 Electronic flight information system (EFIS), 805 Electronic ignition control, 88–90 closed-loop ignition timing, 90–3 SA correction scheme, 93–4 Electronic steering control, 414–15 Electronic suspension system, 409–12 classes, 409–10 control system, 413–14 variable damping via variable strut fluid viscosity, 412–13 variable spring rate, 413 Electronic traction system (ETS), 246 Emicat, 58 Emissions control, 54 air injection and gulp valve, 62 air management valves, 62–3 black smoke, 73 carbon monoxide, 70 catalyst support, 57 catalytic conversion, 56 catalytic converters, metallic monoliths for, 57–9 complex valve arrangements, 63–5 conflicting requirements, 67–8 crankcase emission control, 61, 62 diesel engine emissions, 67 diesel exhaust emissions, influence of fuel quality on, 72 early measures for, 54 electronic control system, 60 evaporative emissions, 60–1 Ford exhaust gas ignition system, for preheating catalysts, 59 oxides of nitrogen, 68–9 particle traps, 71–2 particulates, 70–1 three-way conversion, 59–60 two-way catalytic conversion, 56–7 unburnt hydrocarbons, 69–70 US Federal test procedures, evolution of, 54–6 vapour collection and canister purge systems, 65–7 warm-air intake systems, 60 white smoke, 73 Emitec, 58 Energy source, braking systems as, 362 Engine crank, 81 Engine cylinder capacity, 16–17 Engine force constraint, 459 Engine noise, 703 combustion noise, 703–4 engine speed and load on noise, 705 measurement, 705 mechanical noise, 704–5 noise source ranking techniques, 705–6 814 Engine power, 15–16, Engine-radiated noise targets, 681 Engine torque, 15 Enhanced client-assisted GPS positioning, 426 Envirovan, 167–8 Epicyclic gear set, 125–6 Equivalent roll stiffness model, 479–81 European Tyre and Rim Technical Organization (ETRTO), 285, 290, 294 Evaporative emissions, 60–1 Evaporative emissions canister purge, 94–5 Evl, 158–9 Excrescence drag, 664 Execution control layer, 445 Exhaust gas ignition (EGI) system, see Ford, exhaust gas ignition system Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor, 79, 84, 97–8 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), 55–6, 69, 78 control systems, 86–7 Exhaust stroke: C.I engines, 10–11 S.I engines, Exhaust systems, 746 exhaust noise control, 773–7, 778 exhaust noise sources, 759–62, 763 flow duct acoustics, 762–9 improved engine performance, design for, 748–59 Exhaust tailpipe-radiated noise targets, 681 Experimental modal analysis (EMA), 602 Experimental vehicles, 454 Extended Enterprise, 677, 679 Exterior noise: airborne tyre noise, 777 controlling, 780 measurement, 779–80 road surface influence on, 779 sources, 777–9 exhaust systems, 746 exhaust noise control, 773–7, 778 exhaust noise sources, 759–62, 763 flow duct acoustics, 762–9 improved engine performance, design for, 748–59 intake systems, 746 design, issues in, 746 designer, 746–7 flow duct acoustics, 762–9 improved engine performance, design for, 748–59 intake noise, 746 intake noise control, 769–73 intake noise sources, 759–62, 763 principal components, 747 snorkel and filter box dimensions, 747–8 snorkel orifice location, 747 noise source ranking, 743 using shielding techniques, 744–5 pass-by noise homologation, 739 EC noise homologation, 740–1 future developments, 742 homologation noise limits, 742–3, 744 Index track and atmospheric effects, 741–2 in US and outside EC, 742 valve and port geometry, 780 F1 McLaren production, 657 Fahy’s equation, 722 Far field, 695 Fatigue, 610–12 Faux sedan, 555–7 Ferrari, 120, 534 Ferrari 360 Modena, 616 Fiat Campagnolo, 244 Fiat hybrid bus, 194–6 Fiat Panda, 239, 243, 247 Finite element analysis (FEA), 386, 387, 599–603 Finite-element analysis system (FAST), 602 Flake graphite iron, 384 Flanking transmission, 719 Flat hump (FH) rim, 301 Flat-panel display, 799 Flexing, 287 Flow resistivity, 712–13 Flow separation, 665 Flywheel energy storage, 151 Flywheel motor/generator, 185–7 Force coefficient, 316–17 Force-vector method, see Complex stiffness method Forced linear vibrations, 341–3 Ford, 60 e-Ka, 161 Ecostar, 165–7 exhaust gas ignition system, 59 EXT 11 project, 162–4 finite element analysis, 602 P2000 fuel cell platform, 170 Ford Escort Express delivery vehicle, 220 Ford Focus, 213 Ford Werke AG, 217 Form drag, 664 Foundation brakes, 362, 363–4 Four-bar twist beam axle, 207 Four-stage stop simulation, 368 Four-stroke-cycle compression-ignition (diesel) engine, 10–12 Four-stroke-cycle petrol engines, 5, and two-stroke-cycle petrol engine, comparison of, 9–10 Four-wheel drive, 240 advantages, 242–3 basic passenger car with front-wheel drive, 250–2 basic standard design passenger car, 252–3 disadvantages, 243, 245–6 Golf4motion, 245 manual selection, on commercial and all-terrain vehicles, 249–50 varieties, 253, 254 vehicles with overdrive, 246–9 Four-wheel steer system, 586 Free linear motions, 340–1 Frequency response function, 343, 730 Friction dynamometers, 30 Front and rear inner fenders, 548–9 Front axle lock, 371, 377, 378 Front-mounted engine, rear-mounted drive design, 224 advantages, 225 disadvantages, 225 driven rear axles, 226–7 non-driven front axles, 225–6 Front-wheel drive, 231 advantages, 235 design types, 231–4 disadvantages, 235–7 driven front axles, 237–8 non-driven rear axles, 238 independent wheel suspension, 240 rigid axle, 240 twist-beam suspension, 238, 240 Front-wheel drive vehicles, 322 Front-wheel-drive manual gearbox, 115, 116 Front-wheel-drive passenger car gearbox, 114–15 Front wheel lock, 371 Fuel-cell powered vehicles: Ford P2000, 170 General motors Zafira projects, 168–70 liquid hydrogen/fuel reformation, 170, 171 prototype fuel-cell car, 170–1 Fuel consumption and NOx emissions, relationship between, 69 Fuel control modes, 79–81, 95–7 acceleration enrichment, 84–5 closed-loop control, 82–4 deceleration leaning, 85 engine crank, 81 idle speed control, 85–6 open-loop control, 82 warm-up mode, 81–2 Full electro-mechanical system, 388 Fuel injection timing, 98 Full matrix method, see Matrix inversion method Fuel quantity measurement, 791–2 Fuel quantity sensor, 791 Fuel reformation, 170, 171 Fuel tank pressure control valve, 67 Full vehicle, modelling and assembly of, 475 aerodynamic effects, 491–2 anti-roll bars, 486–8 comparison of full vehicle handling models, case study, 513–23 driveline components, 498–500 driver behaviour, 505 body slip angle control, 512, 513, 514 path following controller model, 509–12 steering controllers, 506–9 two-loop driver model, 513, 514 equivalent roll stiffness model, roll stiffness determination for, 488–91 measured outputs, 477–8 modelling traction, 497–8 springs and dampers: leaf springs, 485–6 815 Index Full vehicle, modelling and assembly of (continued ) simple models, treatment in, 484–5 steering system, 500–5 suspension system representation, 478–9 concept suspension approach, 482–4 equivalent roll stiffness model, 479–81 linkage model, 481–2 lumped mass mode, 479 swing arm model, 481 vehicle body, 475–7 vehicle braking, 492–7 Functional layer, 445 Fuzzy logic, 507 Gain scheduling, 508 Gas-inflated bags, 578, 582 Gas turbine hybrid taxi, 182–5 Gasoline engines, 705, 748, 759 Gaussian distribution, 728 Gear ratios, 98–9, 111, 119 Gearchange mechanism, 139–40 Gearchanging and synchromesh, 115–19 General Motors (GM), 59, 60, 574 emissions from, 54, 56 EVl, 158–9 Zafira projects, 168–70 Geometric near field, 695 German Deutsch Industrie Normale (DIN), 16 Germany: DIN Standards, 285 WdK Guidelines, 285–6 GKN Automotive: front-wheel output shaft of, 233 velocity sliding joints by, 216 GKN–Birfield AG, 208 Glass cockpit, 805 Glass mat thermoplastic (GMT), 656 Global Alternative Propulsion Centre (GAPC), 168, 169 Global Outstanding Assessment (GOA), 190 Global positioning technology, 419 applications, 432 basic positioning, 432–4 location-based services, 434–5 GPS receiver technology, 427 components, 428–9 performance considerations, 431–2 solutions, 429–31 history, 419–20 NAVSTAR GPS system, 420 characteristics, 420–1 navigation message, 421–2 satellite-based positioning: basic science, 422 positioning techniques, 423–7 Gold code, 429 Golf 4motion, four-wheel-drive, 245 Grey cast iron (GI), 384, 385 Grillage, 528–9, 557 Gudgeon-pin, 816 Gulp valve, 62 Gyroscope, 427 Haldex, 246 Handheld GPS system, 432–3 Handling of car, 409, 410, 411 Harmonic components, 37, 38 Head Impact Test System (HITS), 577 Heated exhaust gas oxygen (HEGO) sensor, 98 Heated gas inflator (HGI), 582 Height-to-width ratio, 290 Helix-style antennas, 428 Helmholtz resonator, 771–2 High carbon GI, 385 High-speed digital data (HSDD), 803 High strength low alloy (HSLA), 649, 650–1 High strength steel (HSS), 638 High-voltage bus (HVB), 100 Higher strength steels, 649 HILARE architecture (LAAS), 444–5, 446 Holonomic path approximation, 467 Homologation noise limits, 742–3, 744 Honda Civic, 240 Honda Civic Shuttle WD, 249 Honda Insight hybrid car, 191–4 Honda models, 235 Honda NSX, 612 Honda EV, 157–8 Horizontal sync, 800 Hot and cold rolling processes, 641 ‘Hot-bulb’ engine, 12 Hump (H) rim, 301 HV powertrain control, 99–103 Hybrid and tandem dynamometers, 30–1 Hybrid architectures, 438, 441 deliberative-based hybrid architectures, 441–2 reactive-based hybrid architectures, 442–4 three-layered hybrid architectures, 444–6 Hybrid vehicle design, 175 advanced hybrid truck, 200 case studies: dual hybrid system, 185, 186 flywheel addition to hybrid drive, 185–7 hybrid passenger cars, 181, 182, 183 hybrid power pack, 179 rotary engine with PM motor, 179–80 small cars, hybrid electric solution for, 179 taxi hybrid drive, 182–5 Wankel rotary engine, 180–1 hybrid passenger and goods vehicles: advanced hybrid bus, 198–200 CNG-electric hybrid, 196–8 hybrid-drive buses, 194–6 hybrid-drive prospects, 175–7 justification, 177, 179 map-controlled drive management, 177 mixed hybrid-drive configurations, 177–8 series-production hybrid-drive cars, 187 production hybrid vehicles, recent addition to, 191–4 Toyota prius systems, 188–91 Index Hydraulic dynamometers, 27, 31, 33 Hydraulic power steering systems, 266–7 Hydraulic transmissions, 131–2 Hydrocarbons (HCs), 53, 60, 69 see also Unburnt hydrocarbons Hydrogen, as fuel, 156 Hydrokinetic dynamometer, 27 Hydrokinetic torque converter, 122 fluid converter, 123–4 fluid couplings, 123 torque converter, 124–5 Hydrostatic drives, 132 Hydrostatic dynamometers, 28 HyGe test rig, 572–3 Hysteresis, 370 HYZEM research programme, 175, 176 IC chip set solutions, 430 Icy roads, 319, 406 Idle speed control, 85–6 Imbalance U, 305 Impulse–response function, 727 Independent wheel suspensions, 206–7, 240 double wishbone suspensions, 208–10 McPherson struts and strut dampers, 210–13 multi-link suspension, 216–17 rear axle trailing-arm suspension, 213–14 requirements, 207–8 semi-trailing-arm rear axles, 214–16 steering on, 257–9 Indicated mean effective pressure (imep), 748 Induced drag force, 664 Induction stroke: C.I engines, 10 S.I engines, Infinite silencer, 745 Infinitely variable transmission (IVT), 108 Initial system response time, 367 Injection moulding, 656 Inline gearboxes, 114 Inner dead centre (IDC), Input and output signal conversion, 787–9 Instrument panel (IP), 786 Instrumentation, 785 automotive diagnostics, 807 coolant temperature measurement, 792 CRT, 798 CAN network, 804–5 scan circuits, 800–4 display devices, 794–5 fuel quantity measurement, 791–2 glass cockpit, 805 input and output signal conversion, 787 multiplexing, 788–9 LCD, 795 transmissive LCD, 796–7 LED, 795 modern instrumentation, 785–6 oil pressure measurement, 792–4 sampling, 789 computer-based instrumentation, 790–1 telematics, 807 trip information computer, 805–7 vehicle speed measurement, 794 VFD, 797–8 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) technology, 29 Intake noise, 746 control, 769–73 sources, 759–62, 763 Intake orifice-radiated noise targets, 681 Intake systems, 746 design for improved engine performance, 748–59 design, issues in, 746 designer, 746–7 flow duct acoustics, 762–9 intake noise, 746 control, 769–73 sources, 759–62, 763 principal components, 747 snorkel and filter box dimensions, 747–8 snorkel orifice, location of, 747 Integral/unitary body structure, 538–41 Integrated engine control system, 94 automatic system adjustment, 95 evaporative emissions canister purge, 94–5 improvements in, 97 secondary air management, 94 system diagnosis, 95 Interference drag, 665 Interior noise: aerodynamic noise, 707–8 airborne noise, 688 background information on systems, 725–6 brake noise, 708–9 coherence, 727–30 convolution integral, 726–7 correlation, 727–30 covariance function, 727–30 engine noise, 703 combustion noise, 703–4 engine speed and load on noise, 705 measurement, 705 mechanical noise, 704–5 noise source ranking techniques, 705–6 frequency response function, 730 linearised mass conservation equation, derivation of, 732–3 measurement, 689 noise path analysis, 690 coherence methods for, 691–2 non-invasive methods for, 694–5 standard methods for, 692–4 non-linear and linearised inviscid Euler equation, derivation of, 733 origin, 687 plane waves with termination impedance, 730–2 rattle noise, 709 road noise, 706 controlling, 707 817 Index Interior noise: (continued ) interior road noise, 706–7 structure-borne road noise, analyzing, 707 sound control: by minimizing transmission, 715–25 through absorption within porous materials, 709–15 sound power measurement, of vehicle noise sources, 696 under different circumstances, 702–3 in diffuse acoustic field, 697–8 in free field using sound pressure techniques, 696–7 near and far acoustic field, 695–6 in near field, 700 in semi-reverberant far field, 698–9 using intensity meter, 701–2 using surface vibration velocity, 700–1 squeak noise, 709 structure-borne noise, 688 subjective assessment, 689–90 tizz noise, 709 Interior noise targets, 681–3 Interlacing, 80 Internal drag, 665 Internal-combustion engine, components and terms, 3–5 four-stroke-cycle spark-ignition (petrol) engine, 5, valve timing diagrams, 6–7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 286 Inverse differential GPS positioning (IDGPS), 425 Italian Commissione technica di Unificazione nell Automobile (CUNA), 16 Jaguar, 220, 616 Jaguar XJ, 220, 61 Jatco JF506E, 121–2 JF 506E AT operation, 126–8 JPL exploratory robot architecture, 441 Key car manufacturers, materials and parameters used by, 634–5 Kingpin inclination, 257 Knocking, 90–3 Lagonda V12, 532 Lancia front axle, 236 Lancia Thema: gearbox unit on, 233 Lancia Y 10: omega rear wheel suspension on, 239 Land Rover Defender, 90, 596 Land Rover Defender, 110, 596 Land Rover Freelander, 597 Land Rover vehicles, 595 Lane Change Maneuver, 415 Lane changing, 450–1 Laser welded blanks, 540 Lateral cornering force, 313–14 Lateral force, 406 influencing variables: camber change, 314–16 818 cross-section ratio H/W, 314 due to camber, 316 road condition, 314 track width change, 314 vertical force variations, 314 lateral cornering force properties, on dry road, 313–14 self-steering properties, 311–12 slip angle and friction coefficients, 310–11, 312–13 Lateral loading case, for standard sedan, 558 backlight frame, 562 dash panel, 561 engine beam, 559 floor panel, 562 front parcel shelf, 560 left-hand front inner wing pane, 560 left-hand sideframe, 562 lower rails of front inner panels, 560 luggage beam, 560 panel behind the rear seats, 562 rear parcel shelf, 560–1 rear quarter panels, lower rails of, 560 roll moment and distribution at front and rear suspensions, 558–9 roof, 562 transverse floor beam, 559–60 windscreen frame, 561–2 Lateral wheel slip, definition of, 326 Lead–acid battery, 1434 Leaf springs modelling, 4856 ărder Fahrwerktechnik, 227, 265, 274 Lemfo Light commercial vehicle tyres, designation of, 292–3 Light-emitting diode (LED), 795 Ligier, 448 Line of stroke, Linear and non-linear systems, 725 Linear steady-state cornering solutions, 337–9 Linearised mass conservation equation, derivation of, 732–3 Linkage model, 479, 481–2 Liquid crystal display (LCD), 795–7 Liquid crystal polarization, 796 Liquid hydrogen, 170, 171 Lister Jaguar, 534 Lithium-ion batteries, 149, 161 Load capacities and inflation pressures, of tyres, 294 designation, 294 pressure determination, 294 pressure limit values, 297 wheel camber, influence of, 294, 297 Load sensitive pressure regulating valve, 363 Location-based services, 434–5 Lock-up clutch, 130 Logic controller, 507 Longitudinal axis, 393 Longitudinal link and semi-trailing arm axles, 206 Longitudinal slip of tyre, 370 Longitudinal transverse axles, 282 Loop-scavenging system, see Reverse-flow (Schnuerle) scavenging Lotus Elise, 537, 616 Index Low drag design, 665 Low-voltage bus (LVB), 100 Lucas, 155, 156 Lucas-Smiths Man-Air-Ox, 62 LuK-PIV chain construction, 133 Lumped mass model, 479, 480 MAF rate, 82 Magnesium, 654–5 Magnetic compass, 427 Magnetic focusing system, 799 Magneto-rheological fluid (MR), 412, 558 Main-ends, MAN/Voith concept city bus, 198–200 Manual gearbox, 114 automated manual transmission, 120–1 clutch, 119–20 front-wheel-drive passenger car gearbox, 114–15 gear ratios, achieving, 119 gearchanging and synchromesh, 115–19 rear wheel drive car and commercial gearbox, 115 Manual steering systems, 265 Manual transmission, 107 Map-controlled drive management, 177, 178 Mass air flow (MAF), 78 Master cylinder, 363 Master site, 424 Materials integration into designs, 620–1 sandwich materials, 625–7 tailor welded blanks, 624–5 tube hydroforming, 621–4 MATLAB, 509 MATLAB/Simulink, 509, 523 Matrix inversion method, 694 McPherson front axle, 211, 232, 237 McPherson strut rear axle, 214 McPherson struts and strut dampers, 210, 280–1 advantages, 211 disadvantages, 212 Mean best torque (MBT), 90 Mean effective pressure, 15 Medium carbon GI, 385 Mercedes-Benz, 170, 216, 224, 225, 226, 228, 241, 246, 251, 253, 265, 271 Mercedes-Benz Sprinter series, 228 Metallic monoliths, 57–9 Microcontroller, 399 Microprocessor unit (MPU), 97, 428, 785, 802, 803 Microstrip, 428 Milliken Moment Method (MMM), 353 Milliken Research Associates, 353 Mission planner, 442, 443 Mission Scheduler, 446, 448 Mitsubishi, 200, 743 ML1 cell, 148 Mobile unit, 424 Model Reference Adaptive Scheme (MRAS), 508 Modern instrumentation, 785–6 Modified 1-D linear plane wave equation, 714 Modified prototype vehicle: adhesion utilization, 376 brake system efficiency, 376 Modulation system, 362 Moment-by-moment feedback models, 506–7 Moment method, 353–4 Monocoque, 536–7, 597 Monolithic catalyst carriers, 57 Monopole antennas, 428 Motion controller, 448 Motion planner, 448 Motion stability, at large lateral accelerations, 346–8 Motor control alternatives, 153–4 Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA), 569–70 Moving obstacles, 457, 460 MSC.ADAMS, 494, 505, 509, 510, 511 MTS Flat-Trac Roadway SimulatorÔ, 354 Multibody systems vehicle model, 475–7 Multi-link rear axle, 206 Multi-link suspension, 207, 216–17 advantages, 216–17 disadvantages, 217 and double wishbone, 278–80 of Ford Werke AG, 217 Multiple Electronic Permanent (MEP), 181 Multiplexer (MUX), 788–9 Multipole system, 725 Natural frequency, of undamped system, 341 NAVSTAR GPS system, 420 characteristics, 420–1 navigation message, 421–2 Near field techniques, 700 NecarIV, 170–1 Neural networks, 507–8 Nickel–metal hydride alkaline battery, 146 Nitric acid, 53 Nitric oxide (NO), 53 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 53 Noise, 668–9, 676 Noise path analysis, 690 coherence methods for, 691–2 non-invasive methods for, 694–5 standard methods for, 692–4 Noise reduction (NR), 715 Noise source ranking, 743 using shielding techniques, 744–5 Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH), 603, 675 Non-driven front axles, 225–6 Non-driven rear axles, 238–40 independent wheel suspension, 240 rigid axle, 240 twist-beam suspension, 238, 240 Nonholonomic constraints, 457 Nonholonomic path planning, 464–5 Non-linear and linearised inviscid Euler equation, derivation of, 733 Non-linear steady-state cornering solutions, 344–52 Nylon (PA), 655 819 Index Occupant safety, testing, 574–6 Odometer, 427 Oil engines, 10 Oil pressure measurement, 792–4 Oil pressure sensor, 794 Opel Astra, 268 Opel Corsa, 270 Opel Vectra, 266 Open loop steering input, 504 Open-bottom canisters, 65–6 Open-centre control system, from ZF, 268 Open-loop control system, 82 Operating quadrants, of dynamometer design, 31 Optimum control models, 506 Otto, Nicolaus August, Outer dead centre (ODC), Overdamped, 396 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx), 68–9 Oxygen sensor improvements, 97–8 Panel dent resistance and stiffness testing, 607–10 Parallel hybrid, 100 Parallel parking, 451 experimental run of, 455 parking manoeuvre, performing, 451–3 parking place, 451 Parameterized motion plan (PMP), 448 Parcel shelf/upper dash, 549 Particle traps, 71–2 Particulates, 70–1 Pass-by noise homologation, 739 EC noise homologation, 740–1 future developments, 742 homologation noise limits, 742–3, 744 track and atmospheric effects, 741–2 in US and outside EC, 742 Passenger car: designations for, 290 with front-wheel drive, 250–2 and light commercial vehicles and trailers: rims for, 300–1 wheels for, 301–3 requirements, 286 Passenger compartment: integrity, 579–80 of standard sedan, 549 backlight (rear window) frame, 550 engine bulkhead, 550 floor, 551 front windshield, 550 rear seat bulkhead, 550–1 roof, 550 sideframes, 551–2 Passive safety, 569 Patch, see Microstrip Payton’s architecture, 442 Pedal assembly, 363 Pedal controls, 588–9 Pedestrian safety, 576–7 820 Perimeter space frame, 537–8 Permanent magnet dynamometer, 29 Petrol engines, see Gasoline engines Petrol engines vs diesel engines, 14–15 PID controller, 507 Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO), 506 Piston, Piston displacement, 15 Piston engines cycles, of operation: compression-ratio, 17 engine-performance terminology: engine cylinder capacity, 16–17 engine power, 15–16 engine torque, 15 mean effective pressure, 15 piston displacement/swept volume, 15 four-stroke-cycle compression-ignition (diesel) engine, 10–12 internal-combustion engine, components and terms, 3–5 four-stroke-cycle spark-ignition (petrol) engine, 5, valve timing diagrams, 6–7 S.I and C.I engines, comparison of, 14–15 two-stroke-cycle diesel engine, 12–14 two-stroke-cycle petrol engine, crankcase disc-valve and reed-valve inlet charge control, 8–9 and four-stroke-cycle petrol engines, comparison of, 9–10 reverse-flow (Schnuerle) scavenging, 7–8 Piston rings, Piston stroke, 4–5 Pitch, 393 Pitch motion, of vehicle body, 379–80 Pivot/steering rotation axis, 257 Plan sequencer, 443 Plane vehicle motions, differential equations for, 334–6 Platooning, 453 experimental run of, 456 generating required controls, 453–4 state parameters, determining, 453 Pluto GmbH, 72 Ply steer force, 306 Pneumatic trail, influence of, 339–43 forced linear vibrations, 341–3 free linear motions, 340–1 on handling curve, 348–9 steady-state circular motion, stability of, 339–40 Polymers and composites: advanced composites, 657 processing, 656–7 thermoplastics, 655 thermosets, 656 Porosity, 713–14 Porsche, 224, 229 Porsche Boxster, 230 Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV), 54 Power electronics centre (PEC), 166 Power protection centre (PPC), 167 Power steering systems, 265 Index electrical power steering systems, 268–70 electro-hydraulic power steering systems, 267–8 hydraulic power steering systems, 266–7 Power stroke: C.I engines, 10 S.I engines, Power-split control, 190–1 Powertrain, 107 Precise Positioning Service (PPS), 420 Pressure-controlled systems, 268 Pressure drag, 664 Pressure limiter, 363 Pressure-sensitive pressure regulating valve, 363 Pressure supply unit, 267, 268 Primary piston, 363 Primary ride, definition of, 676 Product Design Specification (PDS), 677, 679 Prohahilistic path planning, 467 Prototype fuel-cell car, 170–1 Pseudorandom noise (PRN), 420 Punt/platform structure, 537, 538 Push belt transmission, 134 ‘Push belt’, 133 Quattro, 250 Quattro models, torsen central differential fitted in, 244 Rack and pinion steering: advantages, 260 configurations, 261 disadvantages, 260 of front-wheel-drive Opel Astra and Vectra, 263 steering gear: manual with centre tie rod take-off, 262–3 manual with side tie rod take-off, 261–2 on Vauxhall Corsa, 261 by ZF, 262 Radial brakes, see Drum brakes Radial design passenger car tyres, 288 Radial force variation, 305 Radial ply tyres, 287–9 Radial tyre: standardized speed categories for, 292 substructure of, 288 Rapid thermal processing (RTP) techniques, 149 Rattle noise, 709 Reacquisition time, 432 Reaction injection moulding (RIM), 656 Reactive Action Packages (RAP), 444 Reactive architectures, 438, 439 Reactive-based hybrid architectures, 442–4 Rear and mid engine drive, 227–31 Rear axle lock, 371, 378–9 Rear axle trailing-arm suspension, 213–14 Rear view mirrors, 587 Rear wheel drive car and commercial gearbox, 115 Rear-wheel-drive gearbox, 117 Rear-wheel drive vehicles, 322 Rear wheel lock, 371 Receiver sensitivity, 432 Reciprocating motion, Recirculating ball steering: advantages and disadvantages of, 263–4 steering gear, 264–5 Reeds and Shepp car, 465–7 vs continuous-curvature car, 469 steering method, 467 Release time, 367–8 Renault Twingo, 120 Resin transfer moulding (RTM), 656, 657 Reverse-flow (Schnuerle) scavenging, 7–8, Revolutions per minute (RPM) measurement, 87 Reynolds number (Re), 670 Ride, 409 Rigid axles, 206, 217, 240 advantages, 219–21 disadvantages, 217–19 steering on, 259–60 Rims, for passenger carsand light commercial vehicles and trailers, 300–1 Road-induced electricity, 157 Road noise, 706, 777 controlling, 707 interior road noise, 706–7 structure-borne road noise, analyzing, 707 Robotic architecture, 438 Robust controller, 440 Rochester: high vacuum air-control valve, 65 normal diverter valve, 64 standardised diverter valve, 62–3 type1 canister control valve, 66 Roll, 393 Rolling circumference and driving speed, of tyre, 297–8 Rolling force coefficients and sliding friction: friction coefficients and factors, 308–9 road influences: aquaplaning, 309–10 dry and wet roads, 309 snow and ice, 310 slip, 308 Rolling resistance, in tyre, 369 during cornering, 307–8 influencing variables, 308 in straight-line driving, 306–7 Rotor materials, 385–6 Saab, 588 Saab 900 Sensonic, 120 SAE J986 AUG94, 742 SAE J1030 FEB87, 742 Saloon, see Standard sedan Sample period, 789 Sampling, 789–91 Sandwich materials, 625–7 Satcon Technologies, 151 Satellite-based positioning: basic science, 422 821 Index Satellite-based positioning: (continued ) positioning techniques, 423–7 Scavenging, 12–13 Schenck dynamometer design, 22, 23 Schnuerle scavenging, see Reverse-flow (Schnuerle) scavenging Script, 447 Sealed Housing for Evaporative Determination (SHED), 61 Seat belts, 583–4 Seating, 587–8 Secondary air management, 94, 95 Secondary piston, 363 Secondary ride, definition of, 676 Self-steering properties, of vehicles, 311–12 Self-tuning-regulator, 509 Semiactive suspension system, 409 Semi-rigid crank axles, 221–4 advantages, 221–2 disadvantages, 222–4 from installation point of view, 222 from kinematic point of view, 222 from suspension point of view, 222 Semi-trailing-arm rear axles, 214–16 Sense-model-plan-act (SMPA), 438 Sensor-based manoeuvre (SBM), 446, 448, 449–50 Separatrices, 350 Sequencer, 444 Series 55 wide tyre designs, 301 Series hybrid vehicle (SHV), 100 Serious injury, pedestrians protection from, 576–7 Series-production hybrid-drive cars, 187 production hybrid vehicles, recent addition to, 191–4 Toyota prius systems, 188–91 Series-wound DC motors, 152–3 Server-assisted GPS positioning, 425–6 Server-based navigation systems, 435 Servo boost, 268 Shaft whirl, 41–2 Sharp architecture, 445–6 Shear force and bending moment diagrams, 546–8 Sheet metal disc-type wheel, used in series production vehicles, 302 Sheet moulding compound (SMC), 656 Shell Oil Company, 156 Shift schedule, 99 Shift strategy, 128 Shifting property, 727 Side force and brake force characteristics, 327 Sidebranch resonators, 772, 773 SIDs, 576 Simple structural surfaces (SSSs), 542–3, 559 equilibrium equations for, 545–6 free body diagrams for, 544 Sinclair, Clive, 157 Single component exterior noise targets, 680 engine-radiated noise targets, 681 exhaust tailpipe-radiated noise targets, 681 intake orifice-radiated noise targets, 681 ‘Single offset’, 109 Single-plate clutch, 119 822 Single-point positioning, see Autonomous GPS positioning Single-track model, of car trailer combination, 355 Singularity functions, 726 Skin friction drag, 664 Skin passing, 643–5 SL09B cell, 148 Sliding constraint, 459 Sliding friction factor, 308 Slip, 308 and coefficients of friction, 312–13 Small cars: hybrid electric solution for, 179 problem, 580–1 Small-end, Smart air bags, 582–3 Snorkel and filter box dimensions, 747–8 Snorkel orifice, location of, 747 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 804 Sodium–sulphur battery, 145–6 Solar cell technology, 148–9 Solenoid-actuated air-switching valve, 63 Sony engineers, 149 Sound power measurement, of vehicle noise sources, 696 under different circumstances, 702–3 in diffuse acoustic field, 697–8 in free field using sound pressure techniques, 696–7 near and far acoustic field, 695–6 in near field, 700 in semi-reverberant far field, 698–9 using intensity meter, 701–2 using surface vibration velocity, 700–1 Sound transmission class (STC), 717–18 Source room, 717 SP Resin Infusion Technology (SPRINT), 657 Spark advance (SA) correction scheme, 93–4 Spark-ignition (S.I.) engines, and C.I engines, comparison of, 14–15 Spatial reasoner, 443 Spatial Transformation of Sound Field (STSF), 744 Speech interference level (SIL), 682 Speech transmission index (STI), 683 Speed–density method, 82, 83 Speedometer, 298, 427 Spheroidal graphite iron (SG), 385 Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), 534 Spring stiffness, 304 Springs and dampers, modelling of: leaf springs, 485–6 simple models, treatment in, 484–5 Squeak noise, 709 Stability, 668 Staft steering rear axle, of Opel Omega, 215 Stainless steel, 649 Standard code-phase GPS techniques, 427 Standard design passenger car, 252–3 Standard masses, 24 Standard sedan, 542–3 bending load case for, 543 payload distribution, 543–4 Index shear force and bending moment diagrams, 546–8 SSSs, equilibrium equations for, 545–6 SSSs, free body diagrams for, 544 braking (longitudinal) loads, 562–5 lateral loading case, 558–62 torsion load case for, 548–58 State-time space, 457–8 Static analysis, 371–2 Static axle loads, 371 Steady-state circular motion, stability of, 339–40 Steady-state motion, large deviations with respect to, 349–52 Steel, 614–15, 637 continuous annealing, 641–3 continuous casting, 640 higher strength steels, 649 hot and cold rolling processes, 641 production and finishing processes, 638 skin passing, 643–5 stainless steel, 649 surface topography, 645–9 vacuum degassing, 640 Steel radial tyres, 288 Steering, 257, 584–5 column, 270–2 damper, 272–3 on independent wheel suspensions, 257–9 kinematics: steering gear, influence of type and position of, 273–5 steering linkage configuration, 275–7 tie rod length and position, 277–82 power steering systems, 265 electrical power steering systems, 268–70 electro-hydraulic power steering systems, 267–8 hydraulic power steering systems, 266–7 rack and pinion steering: advantages, 260 configurations, 261 disadvantages, 260 steering gear, manual with centre tie rod take-off, 262–3 steering gear, manual with side tie rod take-off, 261–2 recirculating ball steering: advantages and disadvantages, 263–4 steering gear, 264–5 on rigid axles, 259–60 requirements, 257 Steering column, 270–2 Steering damper, 272–3 Steering gear, 264–5 influence of type and position, 273–5 manual with: centre tie rod take-off, 262–3 side tie rod take-off, 261–2 Steering kinematics: steering gear, influence of type and position of, 273–5 steering linkage configuration, 275–7 tie rod length and position, 277–82 double wishbone and multi-link suspensions, 278–80 longitudinal transverse axles, 282 McPherson struts and strut dampers, 280–1 steering arm angle, reaction on, 282 Steering linkage configuration, 275–7 Steering system modelling, 500–5 Step function, 499 Stepper motor, 85 Stepper motor-based actuator, 400–1 Stiffness requirement, 527–8 Straight-line instability, 668 Strength requirement, 527 Structural design, see Vehicle structure types; Standard sedan Structural safety and air bags, 578–9 Structure-borne noise, 688 Structure factor, 714 Structure-radiated noise, definition of, 676 Subsumption architecture, principles, 440 Sulphur, in emission control, 67, 71 Sump, Super capacitors, 149–51 Surface adhesion, 370 Surface drag, 664 ‘Surface-ignition’ engine, 12 Surface topography, 645–9 Suspension and drive, types of, 205 four-wheel drive, 240 advantages, 242–3 basic passenger car with front-wheel drive, 250–2 basic standard design passenger car, 252–3 disadvantages, 243, 245–6 manual selection, on commercial and all-terrain vehicles, 249–50 vehicles with overdrive, 246–9 front-mounted engine, rear-mounted drive design, 224 advantages, 225 disadvantages, 225 driven rear axles, 226–7 non-driven front axles, 225–6 front-wheel drive, 231 advantages, 235 design types, 231–5 disadvantages, 235–7 driven front axles, 237–8 non-driven rear axles, 238–40 independent wheel suspensions: double wishbone suspensions, 208–10 McPherson struts and strut dampers, 210–13 multi-link suspension, 216–17 rear axle trailing-arm suspension, 213–14 requirements, 207–8 semi-trailing-arm rear axles, 214–16 rear and mid engine drive, 227–31 rigid axles, 217–21 semi-rigid crank axles, 221–4 wheel suspensions, general characteristics of, 205–7 Suspension control, 586–7 Suspension system representation, 478–9 concept suspension approach, 482–4 equivalent roll stiffness model, 479–81 linkage model, 481–2 823 Index Suspension system representation (continued ) lumped mass mode, 479 swing arm model, 481 SV ephemeris subframes, 421 Swept/displaced volume, 15 Swing arm model, 479, 481, 484 Symbolic, Subsumption, Servo (SSS) architecture, 443 Synchromesh, 118–19 System diagnosis, 95 System identification, 508 System level solutions, 429–30 Systematic errors, 25 Tailor welded blanks, 624–5 Tandem machines, 31 Tandem master cylinder, 363 Task control architecture (TCA), 442 Taxi hybrid drive, 182–5 Telematics, 807 The Federal Environmental Protection Agency, 54 Thermistor, 792 Thermoplastics, 655 Thermosets, 656 Three degrees of freedom, vehicle model showing, 329 Three-layered hybrid architectures, 444–6 Three-way conversion, 59–60 Throttle actuator, 398–9 Throttle body fuel injectors (TBFIs), 79 Thyristor, 153 Thyristor control, 164, 165 Tie rod length and position, 277 double wishbone and multi-link suspensions, 278–80 longitudinal transverse axles, 282 McPherson struts and strut dampers, 280–1 steering arm angle, reaction on, 282 Time-to-first-fix (TTFF), 431–2 Timed sequential port fuel injection (TSPFI), 79 Tire and Rim Association (TRA), 285 Tire-slip controller, 409 Tizz noise, 709 Top dead centre (TDC), Top of ramp (TOR), 750 TopExpress MPSD system, 694, 695 Toroidal drive concept, 135 Toroidal transmission, 135–6 Torotrak transmission, 136 Torque converter, 124–5, 129, 132 lock-up control, 99 Torque converter locking clutch (TCC), 99 Torque flange, 22, 24 Torque measurement, 21 calibration and assessment of errors, 22, 24–6 dynamometer, see Dynamometer trunnion-mounted or cradled machines, 21–2, 23 under accelerating and decelerating conditions, 26 using in-line shafts/torque flanges, 22, 23, 24 Torque shaft dynamometer, 22 Torque steer effects, 321 kinematics and elastokinematics, effect of, 322 824 as result of changes in normal force, 322 resulting from tyre aligning torque, 322 Torsion load case, for standard sedan, 553–5 baseline closed sedan, 552–3 end structures, 548–9 overall equilibrium, 548 passenger compartment, 549–52 significance, 548 structural problems, 555–8 Torsion stiffness, 528, 529 Toyota, 579, 584 Toyota electronically modulated suspension (TEMS), 586 Toyota Hybrid System (THS), 188–91 Toyota prius, 187, 188–91 Track width change, 314 Traction control systems (TCSs), 99, 388, 586 Traction drive designs, 134–5 Trailer, stability of, 357 Trailing-arm axle, 213 Trajectory tracking, 450 Transient cross-wind, 668 Transmission design and driveline, 107 application issues for, 136 breather systems, 139 differentials, 139 efficiency, 137–9 gearchange mechanism., 139–40 operating environment, 136–7 automatic transmissions (AT), 121 ATCU, 128–30 epicyclic gear set, 125–6 hydrokinetic torque converter, 122–5 jatco JF506E, 121–2 JF 506E AT operation, 126–8 shift strategy, 128 continuously variable transmission, 130 hydraulic transmissions, 131–2 rationale for, 130–1 toroidal transmission, 135–6 traction drive designs, 134–5 variable pulley transmissions, 133–4 variable pulley variator designs, 132–4 definitions, 107 manual gearbox, 114 automated manual transmission, 120–1 clutch, 119–20 front-wheel-drive passenger car gearbox, 114–15 gear ratios, achieving, 119 gearchanging and synchromesh, 115–19 rear wheel drive car and commercial gearbox, 115 vehicle requirement, 108–14 Transmission loss (TL), 716, 717 Transmission suite, 716 Transmission system, 362 Transmissive LCD, 796–7 Transverse engine, mounted in front of axle, 232–5 Triangulated sports car structure, 535–6 Triangulated tube structure, 535, 536 Trilateration, 422 Index Trilok converter, 122, 124 Trip information computer, 805–7 Trunnion-mounted/cradled machines, 21–2, 23 Tube hydroforming, 621–4 Tubeless/tubed tyres, 289–90 Twin-silencer exhaust system, 767 Twist-beam suspension, 238, 240 Twisted nematic liquid crystal, 795 Two-degree-of-freedom model, linear analysis of, 336 linear steady-state cornering solutions, 337–9 pneumatic trail, influence of, 339–43 Two-loop driver model, 513, 514 Two-pole system, 725 Two-stroke-cycle diesel engine, 12–14 and four-stroke-cycle diesel engine, comparison of, 14 Two-stroke-cycle petrol engine, 7, crankcase disc-valve and reed-valve inlet charge control, 8–9 and four-stroke-cycle petrol engines, comparison of, 9–10 reverse-flow (Schnuerle) scavenging, 7–8 Two-way catalytic conversion, 56 Two-way catalytic converter, 56–7 Tyre–ground adhesion: efficiency as function of, 375 Tyre load capacity designation, 294 Tyre pressure, 319 determination, 294 limit values, 297 profiles, 298–300 Tyre-pull phenomenon, 325 Tyre–road friction, 370–1 Tyre self-aligning torque: and caster offset, 318–19 front wheels, influences on: dry roads, 319 icy roads, 319 longitudinal forces, 319 tyre pressure, 319 wet roads, 319 in general, 318 Tyre sidewall markings, 297 Tyres, 584 camber change, 314–16 characteristics, 325, 326–8 coefficients of friction and slip, 312–13 cross-section ratio H/W, 314 designs: diagonal ply tyres, 287 dimensions and markings, 290–3 height-to-width ratio, 290 load capacities and inflation pressures, 294–7 profiles, 298–300 radial ply tyres, 287–9 rolling circumference and driving speed, 297–8 speedometer, influence of tyre on, 298 tubeless or tubed, 289–90 tyre sidewall markings, 297 lateral cornering force properties, on dry road, 313–14 lateral force, friction coefficients and slip angle, 310–11 lateral force due to camber, 316 noise, see Airborne tyre noise non-uniformity, 305–6 overturning moment, and displacement of point of application of force, 320–1 requirements, 285 commercial vehicle requirements, 286 interchangeability, 285–6 passenger car requirements, 286 resulting force coefficient, 316–17 road condition, 314 rolling force coefficients and sliding friction: friction coefficients and factors, 308–9 road influences, 309–10 slip, 308 rolling resistance: during cornering, 307–8 in straight-line driving, 306–7 influencing variables, 308 self-steering properties, of vehicles, 311–12 springing behaviour, 304–5 torque steer effects, 321 kinematics and elastokinematics, effect of, 322 as result of changes in normal force, 322 resulting from tyre aligning torque, 322 track width change, 314 tyre self-aligning torque: and caster offset, 318–19 front wheels, influences on, 319 in general, 318 vertical force, variations in, 314 and wheels: concepts, 300 rims for passenger cars, light commercial vehicles and trailers, 300–1 wheel mountings, 303–4 wheels for passenger cars, light commercial vehicles and trailers, 301–3 UK EVA practice for CVS, 164 Ultralight steel auto body (ULSAB), 540, 541 Unburnt hydrocarbons, 53, 69–70 Underdamped, 396 Underfloor chassis frame, 528–34 Underhood ventilation, 669 Unique Mobility, 196 hybrid bus, 196, 197 United Solar Systems, 149 University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI), 327 UNO regulation ECE-R, 3, 285 US Federal test procedures, evolution of, 54–6 US tyres and discontinued sizes for passenger cars, designations of, 291–2 V8 Quattro, 241 Vacuum degassing, 640 Vacuum-fluorescent display (VFD), 797–8 Vacuum-operated actuator, 401–2 Valve timing diagrams, 6–7 825 Index Van Doorne metal belt construction, 133 Van Doorne’s Transmissie (VDT), 132 Vapour collection and canister purge systems, 65–7 Variable braking ratio, braking with, 380 deceleration-sensitive pressure: limiting valve, 380–2 modulating valve, 382–3 Variable damping via variable strut fluid viscosity, 412–13 Variable fill machines, 27 Variable pulley transmissions, 133–4 Variable pulley variator designs, 132–4 Variable spring rate, 413 Vauxhall, 677, 678 Vauxhall Corsa, 232 Veba Oel, 72 Vehicle braking, modelling of, 492–7 Vehicle Certification Agency (VCA), 740 Vehicle dynamics, at complex tyre slip conditions, 357 Vehicle handling and stability, 333 car-trailer combination, 354–7 four-wheel steer: condition that vehicle slip angle vanishes, 343–4 moment method, 353–4 non-linear steady-state cornering solutions, 344–6 motion stability, at large lateral accelerations, 346–8 pneumatic trail on handling curve, influence of, 348–9 steady-state motion, large deviations with respect to, 349–52 pairs of axle characteristics, construction of complete handling diagram from, 348 plane vehicle motions, differential equations for, 334–6 trailer, stability of, 357 two-degree-of-freedom model, linear analysis of, 336 linear steady-state cornering solutions, 337–9 pneumatic trail, influence of, 339–43 vehicle at braking/driving, 352–3 vehicle dynamics, at complex tyre slip conditions, 357 Vehicle motion control, 393 antilock braking system, 404–9 tire-slip controller, 409 cruise control electronics, 399 advanced cruise control, 402–4 stepper motor-based actuator, 400–1 vacuum-operated actuator, 401–2 electronic steering control, 414–15 electronic suspension system, 409–12 electronic suspension control system, 413–14 variable damping via variable strut fluid viscosity, 412–13 variable spring rate, 413 typical cruise control system, 393–9 configuration, 394 digital cruise control, 397–8 speed performance, 395 speed response curves, 396–7 throttle actuator, 398–9 Vehicle parameters, 371 Vehicle refinement: in automotive industry, 676–7 history, 677–9 826 purpose, 676 scope, 675–6 targets, 679 for ride quality, 683 single component exterior noise targets, 680–1 whole vehicle exterior noise targets, 680 whole vehicle targets, for interior noise, 681–3 Vehicle safety: active safety, 577–8, 584 automatic braking and traction control, 586 brakes, 585–6 crash testing, 569–73 electric power assisted steering, 585 electronic control systems in general, 585 ergonomic considerations and safety, 587 occupant safety, testing for, 574–6 occupants protection, 573–4 passenger compartment integrity, 579–80 pedal controls, 588–9 recently introduced advanced systems, 586 seat belts, 583–4 seating, 587–8 serious injury, pedestrians protection from, 576–7 side impacts, 581–2 small car, problem of, 580–1 smart air bags, 582–3 structural safety and air bags, 578–9 suspension control, 586–7 tyres, suspension and steering, 584–5 Vehicle speed measurement, 794 Vehicle structure types: modern structure types, 534 backbone structure, 534 incorporation of roll cage in to structure, 535–6 integral/unitary body structure, 538–41 perimeter space frame/‘birdcage’ frame, 537–8 punt/platform structure, 537 pure monocoque, 536–7 triangulated tube structure, 535 selection, 528 stiffness requirement, 527–8 strength requirement, 527 underfloor chassis frame, 528–34 vibrational behaviour, 528 Vehicle suspensions, 206 Vehicle system controller (VSC), 166 Vehicle-to-vehicle crash tests, 574 Vehicles, models of, 448 Velocity constraint, 459–60 Vento, 272 Vertical sync, 800 Vibration, definition of, 676 Video RAM, 801 Video signal, 799 Visco clutch, with slip-dependent drive moment distribution, 247 Volkswagen AG, 246 Volvo, 72, 224, 588 Volvo steering column, 273 Index VTEC mechanism, 193 VW Bora, 221 VW Golf III, 272 VW Golf IV, 221 VW light commercial vehicle, front axle on, 210 VW LT light commercial vehicle, 218 VW Polo, 258 VW Transporter, 230 Wankel rotary engine, 180–1 Warm-air intake systems, 60 WdK Guidelines, 285–6 ‘Wet gap’ machines, 30 Wet roads, 309, 319 Weymann fabric saloon, 531 Wheel brakes, see Foundation brakes Wheel camber, 294, 297 Wheel speed sensors, 427 Wheels: concepts, 300 light commercial vehicles and trailers: passenger cars, wheels for, 301–3 rims for passenger cars, 300–1 locking, 377 mountings, 303–4 suspension, 205–7 Whiplash injury, prevention of, 588 WHIPS seat, 588 White smoke, 73 Whole vehicle exterior noise targets, 680 Wide area augmentation system (WAAS), 420 Wide area ground reference stations (WRSs), 427 Wide area master stations, 427 Wind noise, 707–8 Wind tunnel testing, 670–1 Window bags, 579 Winter tyre profiles, 299 Yaw, 393 ZEBRA battery, 146–8 Zevco London taxi, 156–7 827 This page is left intentionally left blank ... electronic suspension system is depicted in the block diagram of Fig 13.1 -22 The control system configuration in Fig 13.1 -22 is generic and not necessarily representative of the system for any production... both narrowband and wideband sources Common sources of narrowband interference include transmitter harmonics from Citizens Band (CB) radios and AM and FM transmitters Sources of wideband interference... Specification US Department of Defense, 2nd edition Chapter 14 .2 14 .2 Decisional architecture Ljubo Vlacic and M Parent 14 .2. 1 Introduction Autonomy in general and motion autonomy in particular has