Localization Strategies for Global E-Business The acceleration of globalization and the growth of emerging economies present significant opportunities for business expansion One of the quickest ways to achieve effective international expansion is by leveraging the web, which allows for the technological connectivity of global markets and opportunities to compete on a global basis To systematically engage and thrive in this networked global economy, professionals and students need a new skill set – one that can help them develop, manage, assess, and optimize efforts to successfully launch websites for tapping global markets This book provides a comprehensive, non-technical guide to leveraging website localization strategies for global e-commerce success It contains a wealth of information and advice, including strategic insights into how international business needs to evolve and adapt in light of the rapid proliferation of the “global internet economy.” It also features stepby-step guidelines to developing, managing, and optimizing international multilingual websites and insights into cutting-edge web localization strategies is Associate Professor of International Business at the Boeing Institute of International Business at Saint Louis University, Missouri, where he is also Program Leader for the Executive Certificate in Web Globalization Management (www globalizationexecutive.com) He has researched and taught extensively in the area of global e-commerce and has published more than thirty-five papers in peer-reviewed academic journals He is co-author of The Culturally Customized Web Site (2005) and Proliferation of the Internet Economy (2009) NITISH SI NGH Localization Strategies for Global E-Business Nitish Singh CAMBR IDGE U NIVER SIT Y PR ESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107008892 © Nitish Singh 2012 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2012 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Singh, Nitish Localization strategies for global e-business / Nitish Singh p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-107-00889-2 Electronic commerce International trade Business networks Internet marketing I Title HF5548.32.S563 2012 658.8′72–dc23 2011040513 ISBN 978-1-107-00889-2 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate CO N T EN TS List of figures List of tables Preface Illustration credits and acknowledgements Chapter Global e-commerce opportunities and challenges Global e-commerce opportunities Global e-commerce challenges Socio-cultural environment Impact of language and culture on website and content design Geopolitical environment Legal environment Economic environment Conclusion Chapter International e-business expansion and market entry strategies The new multinationals International e-business strategic factor markets Internationalization challenges Internationalization approaches Achieving international e-business expansion Foreign market entry modes Chapter Global online consumer segmentation Segmentation approaches Importance of segmentation Global online user segments BRIC online consumers Identifying global customers using global CRM Segmentation for optimizing web localization efforts Global online consumer segmentation model page viii x xi xiii 1 10 13 15 21 24 28 28 32 35 39 42 47 55 55 57 59 61 64 71 74 v vi CO N T E N T S ● ● ● ● ● ● Global consumer trends Conclusion 78 80 Chapter Web globalization strategies 83 Web globalization challenges Web globalization dilemma 1: standardization or localization? Web globalization dilemma 2: to centralize or to decentralize? Web globalization dilemma 3: in-house versus outsourcing Web globalization dilemma 4: level of localization Web globalization dilemma 5: in which languages to localize? Web globalization dilemma 6: what skill set is needed for web globalization? Global strategies for successful web globalization efforts Conclusion Chapter Developing international websites: internationalization Developing international websites Website globalization, internationalization, localization, and translation Unicode Why internationalize (i18n)? What does internationalization (i18n) entail? Internationalization checklist Writing for an international audience Darwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA) Preparing documents for translation Chapter Effectively localizing international websites Importance of website localization Website localization challenges Locating international websites What is culture? Culturally customizing websites: importance of semiotics Culturally customizing websites: importance of cultural values Culturally customizing writing styles Chapter Managing a web globalization value chain The value chain concept Web globalization value chain components Pre-value-chain analysis Support layer of the web globalization value chain Primary activity 1: internationalization Primary activity 2: localization 83 84 95 98 101 104 106 107 113 119 119 120 125 129 131 138 141 142 143 148 148 149 151 158 159 166 170 183 183 184 185 187 194 196 CO N T E N T S ● ● ● ● ● ● Primary activity 3: testing Primary activity 4: global content management Coordinating the web globalization value chain: localization project management Agile development for localization efficiencies Case study: localization management at Compuware–Changepoint Chapter Optimizing international websites Introduction Optimizing via content management systems Optimizing through a translation management system Case study: 1&1 Internet AG implementing a translation management system for efficiency gains International search engine optimization Keywords for local and multilingual sites Linking strategies for local and international sites Case study: Marina Bay Sands, Singapore, developing a multilingual web presence Chapter Assessing web globalization efforts Global website usability issues Web usability guidelines Web analytics for international web assessment Measuring international website acceptance Assessing web localization efforts: the localization score card Research highlight: assessing the impact of cultural adaptation on international website acceptance Assessing web globalization costs Chapter 10 Strategic industry insights and emerging localization trends vii 200 201 202 205 208 213 213 214 217 222 225 228 234 237 244 244 246 248 251 254 259 262 269 Introduction The mobile web Challenges presented by the mobile interface Tips for adapting content for the mobile web The growing crowdsourcing trend Strategic industry insight 1: community translation Strategic industry insight 2: emerging machine translation technologies Strategic industry insight 3: game localization’s challenges and opportunities 269 270 272 274 276 282 287 292 Web globalization resources Index 298 309 FIGU R E S 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 viii Zazzle.com International International e-environment Yahoo! Maktoob right-to-left navigation Religious symbols Internationalization process challenges Incremental approach: Urban Outfitters Web analytics data Global CRM Harajuku Girl Level of cultural customization How to alert users of non-translated content 3M South Korea 3M United States 3M Brazil Kodak China Kodak Brazil Kodak Sweden Binary code Kanji symbols Examples of constants and variables Text expansion when translating from English to Spanish Character width, length, and height for letters in English and Hindi What web localization entails Improving the accessibility of international websites The SRC effect 3M global gateway page Metaphysical representation of the god Shiva in the form of a lingam Icons used on Yahoo! France site Generic value chain: primary activities Web globalization value chain Project management steps Agile development process page 11 13 36 45 46 65 73 95 102 111 111 112 113 114 114 125 127 131 133 133 151 152 154 155 160 162 184 185 203 207 L IS T O F FI G U R E S ● ● ● ● ● ● 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 Support ingredients for optimizing international sites Important capabilities of content management systems The localization workflow Optimizing global content management Global usability challenges Technology acceptance model for international website acceptance Sections in Yahoo! en Español Community translation challenges Game localization challenges ix 215 217 218 220 246 253 256 284 293 TA BLE S 1.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 9.1 9.2 9.3 Global e-commerce potential Customer contact points Most commonly translated languages, 2007 Globalization index measure Different time formats Number formatting Gender-neutral language High- and low-context cultures Framework for culturally customizing websites Examples of considerations for translating into other languages Select standards for exchanging localization data Elements of a localization kit Project management techniques Desirable qualities in a localization project manager Constructs used to measure international website acceptance The localization score card MANOVA results and post hoc group comparisons by degree of cultural adaptation measured by cultural score, calculated using cultural dimensions proposed in the framework 10.1 Characteristics of rule-based and statistical machine translation x page 67 105 121 136 137 144 169 171 176 194 198 205 209 252 259 262 289 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● glocals (consumer segment) 76–7 mini-I (consumer segment) 77–8 patriots (consumer segment) 74–5 world citizens (consumer segment) 75–6 see also market segmentation; online consumer segmentation models global positioning systems (GPS) 157 global strategies for web globalization 107–13 3M case study 109–10 Kodak case study 112 Global Trade Management (GTM) solutions 22 globalization 120–3 and multiple cultural identities 73–4 Globalization and Localization Industry Association (GALA) 187 globalization of functionality, testing 200 Globalization Partners International (GPI) 236–7, 238, 240–1 globalization project management 238, 240–1 Globalization Project Management Suite (GPMS) 238, 240–1 GlobalSight 221 Globalyzer (Lingoport) 191 glocals (consumer segment) 76–7 GM 141 Gmail, mobile web application 274 GMX (Global Information Management Metrics eXchange) 185, 194 Google acquisition of YouTube 42 blacklisting of BMW site 232 Chinese government censorship 14 crowdsourcing 280 geolocation 157 global expansion 40 link factor 234 linking strategy 234–5 multilingual web support 106 PageRank system 232 proposal to tax 14 statistical machine translation (SMT) 290, 291 translation site 293 317 Google Adsense 280 Google Adwords 229 Google Analytics 45, 57 Google Android 276 Google China 36 Google.fr 235 Google keywords tool 229 Google Maps 87 Google Translate 11 Google Translation Center 283 Google trends 229 Google web analytics 251 Google Webmaster guidelines 231–2, 233, 237 googlerankings.com 232 governments impacts on the internet 13–15 issues relating to e-commerce 13–15 monitoring citizens’ internet searches 14 national e-readiness rating 24–5 graphical user interface (GUI), visual localization 145–6 graphics to avoid 164 Grupo Bimbo 87 guanxi in China 37 Guttinger, Martin 145–6 habitus concept 158 Hall, Bill 194 happy slapping 281–2 Harmonized System (HS) six-digit number codes 22 Harmonized Tariff Schedules (US) 22 head terms 228–9 header tags 231 help section on websites 248 Henderson, Ian 130 Hertz, geolocation 157 high- and low-context orientation 166–7, 169 high-context cultures, writing for 173–4 Hispanic customers in the US 43–4 hiving trend 80 Hofstede’s cultural values framework 38 Home Depot 44 318 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● home page navigation back to 248 self-link on 248 horizontal scrolling in a website 248 Hotels.com 42 Howe, Jeff 278 HP 96, 99–100, 187 locale-specific sites 102, 255 human models and images, local or ethnic compatibility 164 HumanGrid 279 Hungarian language, translation 177 hybrid cultural identities 73–4 Hyperion (Oracle) CRM analysis 69 hyperlinked company logo on internal pages 248 hyperlinks 231 color change 248 indication on web pages 248 i18n see internationalization iAd 271 IBM 44, 99–100, 129, 141, 187, 280 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, icann.org) 39, 233 iconic brands 93–5 icons 161 definition 160 graphics to avoid 164 meaning in different cultures 161 misunderstanding 161 ideographic writing systems 126 idiomatic equivalence 91 idioms 92 IKEA 89, 96 global gateway page 153, 155 use of local models and celebrities 164 image tags 231 import/export information resources (US) 22 in-house translation and localization 98–101 Incoterms (US) 22 incremental approach to e-business expansion 44 index signs 160, 161–2 India border disputes 14–15 online consumers 63–4 use of animal images 163 indirect exporting 48 individualism–collectivism cultural dimension 38, 166–8 individualization trend 79 infomediaries 34 information asymmetry, reduction of 29–30 Infoseek Japan 51 infrastructure access to 35 technology and connectivity 24 InnoCentive 279, 280 Innovation Exchange 279 input method editors (IMEs) 135 Instant Mobilizer 274 institutional distance 38–9 Intel 86, 102, 290 intellectual property protection 19–20, 281 inter-firm linkages and networks 33–4 intermediaries, elimination of 29 international business strategy 108–9 International Components for Unicode (ICU) 129, 185 international e-business expansion 42–52 country market assessment 46–7 country market/language 43–4 foreign market entry modes 47–52 incremental approach 44 international shipping 42–3 multilingual customer service capabilities 44 web analytics 45–6 international e-business strategic factor markets 32–5 International Game Developers Association 295 international institutional issues 38–9 international licensing agreement 50 international markets, lowering of market entry barriers 28–32 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● International Organization for Standardization see ISO international search engine optimization 225–37 definition of SEO 226–7 factors to consider 226–7 for international sites 232–4 for multilingual sites 232–4 getting international links 235–7 issues for international markets 225–6 keyword density 232 keyword relevancy 231–2 keywords for local and multilingual sites 228–32 linking strategies 234–5 links from social media 236 local IP address 236 m-commerce compatibility 236 Marina Bay Sands case study 241 SEO companies 236–7 SEO software 234 strategic keyword placement 230–1 international shipping 42–3 International Trade Administration (US) 22 international website acceptance (cultural adaptation study) 259–62 experimental design 254 eye tracking in usability experiments 253–4 measuring users’ perceptions 251 technology acceptance model (TAM) 251–2 international website development 119–20 brand inconsistency 119 cultural challenges 120 functional difficulties 120 sim-ship (simultaneous shipment) challenges 120 technical difficulties 119 internationalization 123–4 importance of 129–30 in the website development process 129–30 value-creating activities 194–6 internationalization approaches 39–42 319 Amazon.com 39–40 born-global concept 40–1 network model 41–2 Uppsala model 39–40 internationalization challenges 35–9 cultural distance 37–8 institutional distance 38–9 liability of foreignness 36–7 liability of newness 35 liability of outsidership 37 network relationships 37 psychic distance 38 internationalization checklist 138–41 internationalization process 131–8 address formats 137 bidirectional text 135 casing/case-folding 135 create text buffers 133–4 currency formatting 136 date formatting 136 decimal separator formats 136 digit grouping formats 137 extract localizable elements from source code 131–3 locale-sensitive linguistic sorting 134–5 number formatting 136–7 percentage sign formats 137 support locale-sensitive formats 135–8 telephone number formats 137 text concatenation 134 text input methods 135 text-processing functions 134–5 third-party products 137–8 thousand separator formats 136 time formats 136 units of measurement 137 internationalization stage, web globalization value chain 194–6 internationalization testing 200 tools 191 internationalized domain names (IDN) 233 internet impacts of the geopolitical environment 13–15 regional registries 157–8 320 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● internet access, promotion by governments 14 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) 233 internet-based strategic factor markets 33 internet censorship 14 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) (icann.org) 39, 233 Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) 39, 233 Interwoven 217 IP address 236 tracking 56, 66, 157–8 iPhone 142 iShopUSA 43, 48 ISI 290 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 192–3 ISO 16642 193 ISO 3166 country/region codes 185, 193 ISO 639–1 language codes 193 ISO 639–2 language codes 185, 193 ISO 8601 136 ISO 900 series 192–3 ISO 9241 (part 151) website usability standards 247 ISO/IEC, 10646 193 iSold It 50 IStockPhoto 279 Italian language, translation 177–8 Japan cultural values 167 Konbini (convenience stores) 91 Rakuten group 51 Japan Privacy Seal, TRUSTe 19 JavaScript 276 Jeevansathi.com 64 joint ventures 50, 51 Joyo-Amazon.cn 40 Joyo.com 40 jurisdiction international online transactions 17–18 minimum contact concept 17–18 Kaixin001 236 keyword suggestion tools 229–30 keyworddensity.com 232 keywords density 232 density analyzer tools 232 for local and multilingual sites 228–32 relevancy 231–2 spamming with 231–2 strategic placement 230–1 KFC 50, 90 Kijiji 283 Kiva 283 Kodak controlled language 141 localization case study 110–13 Korea, geographic names 14–15 Kraft 89 Krousar Thmey 283 L L Bean 49 L10n see localization LandsEnd.com 32 language and thought processes 9–10 choice of language for localization 104–6 global e-commerce communication challenges 9–12 reading direction 10 top ten languages on the internet 105 website content and design 10–12 language123 283 Language Marketplace 283 language negotiation technology 155–6 Languagelens 290 LanguageScape 283, 284 Latin American and Caribbean Internet Address Registry (LACNIC) 157–8 Lawson 91 lawsuits, out-of-state/out-of-country 17–18 legal environment for global e-business 15–21 compliance with EU regulations 20–1, 22 contracts and agreements 17 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● e-mail spamming laws 20 intellectual property protection 19–20 jurisdiction 17–18 national e-readiness rating 24 online transactions 16 privacy laws 18–19, 20–1 security for online payments 16 Lego Factory 279 Levi’s jeans 95 liability of foreignness 36–7 liability of newness 35 liability of outsidership 37 licensing 49 lifestyle segmentation 57 linear responsibility chart (LRC) 205 Lingo 4.0 191 Lingobit Localizer 192 Lingoport 191 Lingotek 190 Linguatec 290 linguistic theory, Sapir–Wharf hypothesis 9–10 link factor 234 LinkedIn 32, 235, 280 linking strategies for local and international sites 234–5 links on web pages 231 links to international websites, localization assessment 258 LinkShare 51 Lionbridge 190, 191, 236–7 Freeway 221, 222 RbMT solutions 290 RTTS portal 290 LISA (Localization Industry Standards Association) 100, 101, 121, 123, 187, 193–4, 201–2 locale-sensitive formats 135–8 locale-sensitive linguistic sorting 134–5 locale-specific requirements, CLDR project 128, 129 localizability testing 200–1 localizable elements, extraction from source code 131–3 localization best practices 89–91 place localization 91 321 price localization 90–1 product localization 89–90 Localization Industry Standards Association see LISA localization kit 197–9 localization management, Compuware– Changepoint case study 208–11 localization of websites 124 assigning flags or countries to sites 14–15 challenges 149–50 choice of language to use 104–6 currencies 22, 23 definition educational programs 106–7 EU regulations 20–1, 22 iconic brands 93–5 impacts of geopolitical environment 13–15 importance of 148–9 in-house vs outsourcing 98–101 influence of language 10–12 legal environment 15–21 level of 101–4 local taboos 12–13 maps 14–15 navigation of web pages 10–11 need for cultural customization 93–5 purpose 7–8, 148–9 regional disputes and sensitivities 14–15 segmenting global customers 67–8 skills required 106–7 socio-cultural environment 9–13 spatial orientation 10 symbolism and culture 12–13 translation 124 translation equivalence 11–12 translation errors 11–12 value-creating activities 196–200 Zazzle Inc localization project management 202–7 agile development approach 206–7 traditional project management 205, 206 waterfall methodology 205, 206, 210–11 322 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● localization project manager 207–8 localization score card 254–9 localization service provider (LSP), selection criteria 199–200 localization stage, web globalization value chain 196–200 localization strategy 86–9 cost of business blunders 86–9 definition 87 importance of 87–9 problems caused by non-localized messages 86–9 localization team 196–7 localization testing 201 localization vs standardization 71–2, 84–95 localizing translations 91–3 conceptual equivalence 92–3 dialects 93 idiomatic equivalence 91 idioms 92 vocabulary equivalence 92 locating international websites 151–8 challenges 151 geolocation 157–8 global gateway pages 153–5 language negotiation 155–6 two-tier approach 152 location-based e-business strategic factor markets 34–5 location of a website on the web connectivity effects 35 strategic factor markets 35 log file analysis 67–8 logistics 22–3, 42–3 international returns management 22–3 long-term vs short-term cultural orientation 38 low-context cultures, writing for 174–5 LTC Worx 192, 204–5 Lush.com 257–8 luxury products, demand for 79 Lyris 251 m-commerce (mobile commerce) 270 compatibility of websites 236 range of applications 271–2 see also mobile web machine translation (MT) technology 11–12 automated translation approaches 288–90 current users 290 emerging technologies 287–92 future developments 291–2 quality improvement 291–2 role of human translators 291–2 rule-based MT (RbMT) 287, 288, 290 statistical machine translation (SMT) 287, 288–90, 291–2 suitable applications 287 Management Dynamics (logistics service) 22 maps, regional disputes and sensitivities 14–15, 87–8 Marina Bay Sands, multilingual web presence (case study) 237–42 market entry barriers, lowering of 28–32 market maker multinationals 32 market segmentation applications for segmentation information 57–8 importance of segmentation information 57–8 see also global online consumer segmentation model; online consumer segmentation models market segmentation approaches 55–7 behavioral segmentation 57 demographic segmentation 56–7 geo-demographic segmentation 56–7 geographic segmentation 56, 57 geo-location technology 56 lifestyle segmentation 57 psychographic segmentation 57 marketing mix 86 Marlboro cigarettes 94, 95 masculinity–femininity cultural dimension 38, 166–7, 168–9 MasterCard 23 matchmaking online (India) 64 McAfee Internet Security Suite 19 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● mcanerin.com 236–7 McDonald’s 50, 90, 91 Mecca Cola 77, 78 Mechanical Turk 283, 284 media infrastructure, access to 35 MensaProcess 279, 280 mergers 51 meta tags 230, 231 Metcalfe’s law 34 metonyms 162 Microsoft 87–8, 187 community translation 283 in-house localization 99–100 Microsoft Knowledge Base 290, 291 Microsoft Live free translation portal 290 Microsoft NET platform 240 Microsoft Project 192 Microsoft Usability Guidelines (MUG) 247 minc.org 233 mini-I (consumer segment) 77–8 minimum contact concept 17–18 mobile interface adapting content for the mobile web 274–6 context 273 dotMobi top-level domain 276 download speed 274 lack of standard desktop features 272 mobile web browsers 273 mobile website URL 276 navigation issues 272 screen sizes 272 target audience 273–4 top-down interaction 273 varying characteristics of mobile devices 272 web content delivery challenges 272–4 mobile phone, German word for 186 mobile sites, testing on mobile web browsers 276 mobile web 270–6 and the digital divide 273–4 expansion 270–2 range of applications 271–2 trends in usage 270–2 see also m-commerce; mobile interface 323 mobile web browsers 273, 276 mobiReady testing tool 276 money transfer payments 23 monitoring citizens’ internet searches 14 Monster.com 19 MOSAIC geo-demographic segmentation tool (UK) 57 Moses open-source SMT 290 motivation-based consumer segmentation 60 mseo.com 235, 236–7 MSN.com 32 MTV 79, 95, 164, 257 MultiCorpora 190, 191, 221 multicultural requirements, CLDR project 128, 129 multilingual customer service capabilities 44 multilingual domains 233 multilingual SEO, Marina Bay Sands case study 241 multilingual web content 104–6 multilingual web presence, Marina Bay Sands case study 237–42 multinational business strategy 108 multinationals, new types of see e-commerce corporations (ECCs) multiple-language vendor (MLV), outsourcing to 101 MultiTrans 191 MultiTrans Expert 96, 191 Muslim adaptations of Barbie 78 MySpace 32, 235 myths 162 MyTrip.net 51 Nabisco 89 NAFTA, impact on e-commerce 14 NASA clickworker 279 national and global identities 73–4 national registries of domain names 233 navigation breadcrumb trail 248 horizontal scrolling 248 hyperlinked company logo 248 hyperlinks 248 324 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● navigation (cont.) influence of language 10–11 localization assessment 256 mobile interface 272 return to home page 248 text links 248 Nero AG, international expansion 28 Nestlé 251 Netflix 35, 49, 279, 281 NetSuite OneWorld 69 network-based e-business strategic factor markets 33–4 network connectivity of a website 42 network density of a website 42 network externalities 34 network infrastructure, access to 35 network model of internationalization 41–2 network portfolio diversity of a website 42 network relationships in e-business 37 networking organizations 32 networks, global commercial collaborative alliances 5–6 newness, liability of 35 Nextag.com 29 NGOs, community translation 283 Nielsen, Jakob 246 Nike 153, 161 Nippon Paint 163 Nokia, alliance with Yahoo! Nominet (UK) 233 non-equity modes of market entry 47 Novell 284 numbers cultural meanings 89 formatting 136–7 Nveevo 44 NYAN 2.0XT Eye Tracking Data Analysis Suite (Interactive Minds GmbH) 254 OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) 142, 187, 193–4 Obama administration 14 oDesk 283, 284 Odnoklassniki 236 Ogden, Charles 141 OHL 48 OLIF (Open Lexicon Interchange Format) 193 Olympus 167 Omniture 251 Oneworld alliance, airlines 52 online consumer segmentation models 59–61 behavior-based categories 59–60 Digital Life research project 61 economic orientation 61 global model 74–8 motivation-based segments 60 see also global online consumer segmentation model; market segmentation online marketplaces 6, 29 Open Innovation Marketplace™ 279 Open Logos 290 open-source software communities 283 Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Reuse see OSCAR Opera Mini 276 Opera Mobile 276 optimization of international websites content management systems (CMS) 214–17 features of an optimized site 213–14 integration of TMS and CMS 217–21 international search engine optimization 225–37 Marina Bay Sands case study 237–42 organic SEO 241–2 pay-per-click (PPC) 241–2 search engine advertising (SEA) 241–2 search engine marketing (SEM) 241–2 support features 214 translation management system (TMS) 217–25 user-centric web page design 239–40 Oreo cookies 89 organic SEO 241–2 Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards see OASIS) Orkut 62, 64, 236 325 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● orthogonal cultural identification theory 73–4 OSCAR (Open Standards for Container/ Content Allowing Reuse) 193–4 out-of-state/out-of-country lawsuits 17–18 outsidership, liability of 37 outsourcing crowdsourcing as 281 to multiple-language vendor (MLV) 101 to single-language vendor (SLV) 101 translation and localization 98–101 packet sniffer 67 page tagging 251 Pakistan, border disputes 14–15 Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) 290 Pangeanic 290 patents 19–20 Patrick, Brad 98 patriots (consumer segment) 74–5 payment card industry (PCI) 16 payment methods 23–4 payment online, security for 16 PayPal 23, 62 PayPal Beibao 52 pay-per-click (PPC) 241–2 PChome, joint venture with eBay 50–1 PCI DSS standard 16 Pepsi 50, 86 percentage sign formats 137 Petoffice, Cat Dress 12 phonetic writing systems 126 phrase-based SMT (PBSMT) 290 physical infrastructure, less reliance on 30 place localization 91 Plunet Business Manager 192 Pocari Sweat sports drink 163 Polish language, translation 178 portals 32 Porter, Michael 183–4 Portuguese language, translation 178 postmodern consumers 77 power distance cultural dimension 38, 166–7, 168 premiumization trend 79 prepaid card payment 23 price localization 90–1 PriceGrabber.com 29 PriceMinister 51 privacy laws 18–19 EU regulations 20–1 privacy policy for websites 18–19 Prizm geo-demographic segmentation tool (US) 56 Procter & Gamble 94, 279 product localization 89–90 product provider multinationals 32 Proformative online community 52 project management community translation 285 definition 203 tools 192 see also localization project management ProMT 290 ProZ 283, 284 PS3 platform 35 pseudo-localization 134, 146, 192, 201 psychic distance concept 38 psychographic segmentation 57 Quova, Inc 157 R&D costs, benefits of crowdsourcing 280 Rakuten group 51 regional clusters of knowledge and innovation 34–5 regional disputes and sensitivities 14–15 regional internet registries 157–8 regional location, competitive advantage from 34–5 relationship marketing see customer relationship management (CRM) religious organizations, community translation 283, 284 religious symbols 12–13 resources see web globalization resources Returninc.com 22–3 returns, international customers 22–3 RIPE Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) 157–8 RoboHelp 191 326 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● robot text file 232 Romanian language, translation 179 rule-based MT (RbMT) 287, 288, 290 Russia, online consumers 62–3 ruten.com.tw 50–1 Saab 123 Safari (iPhone) 276 Sajan 221 Sakhr 290 Salesforce.com 69 Samsung, geolocation 157 Samsung Xplorer 275 Sapir–Wharf hypothesis 9–10 schemas (simplified mental structures) 158 Scrum (agile development framework) 206 SDL 190, 191, 221 most commonly translated languages 105 RbMT solutions 290 SDL Language Weaver 290 SDL MultiTerm 191 SDL Passolo 145, 192 SDL Trados 146, 190 SDL Tridion 217 search engine advertising (SEA) 241–2 search engine analysis, prior to content creation 186 search engine marketing (SEM) 241–2 search engine optimization (SEO) definition 226–7 crowdsourcing through social media 280 see also international search engine optimization search engine optimization (SEO) companies 236–7 search engine optimization (SEO) software 234 search engines spamming 232 webmaster guidelines 231–2, 233 see also specific search engines search function on websites 248 Second Life 280, 284 segmentation 67–8 see also global online consumer segmentation model; market segmentation; online consumer segmentation models Segmentation Rules eXchange (SRX) 185, 193, 194 segmentation rules sharing 193 self-link on home page 248 self-reference criteria (SRC effect) 153–4 semiotics culturally customizing websites 159–66 definition 160 sentence memory see translation memory (TM) service marks 19–20 service provider multinationals 32 Shaadi.com 64 shipping 22–3, 42–3 Sid Lee (design) 238, 241 Silicon Valley(s) 34–5 sim-ship (simultaneous shipment/release) 120, 190 Singapore, e-government 14, 15 single-language vendor (SLV), outsourcing to 101 single-source content management systems 214–15 singlemom.com 57–8 Sitecore 217 skills required for web globalization 106–7 Skinner, Jesse 156 Skyfire 276 Skype, alliance with Facebook 5–6 SkyRock 236 Small Business Administration (US) 22 SOAP 185 social media 32 international consumer market intelligence 46 international sites 236 linking to 235 links from 236 localization 269–70 mobile web usage 271–2 search engine optimization 280 see also specific sites INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● socio-cultural environment and website localization 9–13 impacts on global e-business 9–13 national e-readiness rating 24 Soffront Software, Inc 69 Software AG 69 software-as-a-service (SaaS) model 29 Sonico 236 Sony, use of local models and celebrities 164 South Korea, broadband infrastructure 14 spamming keywords 231–2 search engines 232 spamming laws 20 Spanish language, translation 179 Spanish-speaking population in the US 43–4 spatial orientation, structure of web content 10 Spiderman, Indianization of 94 splash global gateway pages 153 splash screens 248 Spreadshirt 279 SRC effect (self-reference criteria) 153–4 SRI consulting 57 SRX (Segmentation Rules eXchange) 185, 193, 194 standardization advantages 85–6 arguments against 86 arguments for 85 strategy 85 standardization vs localization 71–2, 84–95 standards/formats and guidelines for web globalization 192–4 STAR Transit 190 Starbucks 154 statistical machine translation (SMT) 287, 288–90, 291–2 Stoeller, Willem 282 strategic alliances 33–4, 52 strategic factor markets alliance-based e-business 33–4 international e-business 32–5 327 internet-based 33 location-based e-business 34–5 network-based e-business 33–4 strategic information about websites 42 strategic keyword placement 230–1 strategic resources, internet-based 33 structured authoring tools 191 StudiVZ 236 style guide 96 subsidiaries, wholly owned 52 Sun Microsystems 130 Sunkus 91 support functions, web globalization value chain 188–9 support standards/formats and guidelines for web globalization 192–4 support technologies, web globalization value chain 190–2 swastika symbol, meaning in different cultures 12–13, 89, 163 Symantec 284, 290 symbolism and culture 12–13 symbols choice of symbols for websites 163 country-specific meanings 12–13 cultural meanings 162–4 definition 160 graphics to avoid 164 meanings and values carried by 163 potential for misinterpretation 163 Systran 290 taboos 12–13 tail terms 228–9 Taiwan and China 14–15 e-commerce market 50–1 Taoboa 36 Tapestry geo-demographic segmentation tool (US) 56 tax laws, EU 20–1, 22 taxing the internet 14 TBX (TermBase eXchange) 185, 193 TBXLISA/OSCAR 193 TDA platform for exchange of language data 185 328 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● technology acceptance model (TAM) 251–2 technology infrastructure, national e-readiness rating 24 TechTeam Global 44 TED Open Translation Project 283 telecommunications sector, Asia 14 telephone number formats 137 termbase 191 terminology glossary 97 management tools 191 standards 193 terms of agreement, for international online markets 17 testing stage, web globalization value chain 200–1 text buffers 133–4 text concatenation 134 text input methods 135 text links color change 248 indication on web pages 248 text-processing functions 134–5 TextBase approach for translation memory 190–1 third-party products, internationalization 137–8 thousand separator number formats 136 threadless.com 278–9 threenagers 79 time formats 136 title tags 230 TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) 185, 193, 199–200 Toshiba, RbMT system 290 Toyota 163 TRACKWeb Mobile 69 trademarks 19–20 transaction costs, lowering of 30–1 transactions online, legal issues 16 translation 124 conceptual equivalence 92–3 dialects 93 idiomatic equivalence 91 idioms 92 in-house vs outsourcing 98–101 localization 91–3 localization assessment 258 preparing documents for 143–5 quality assessment 258 vocabulary equivalence 92 Translation Automation User Society (TAUS) 187 translation equivalence in website content 11–12 translation errors in websites 11–12 translation insights, European languages 175 translation management system (TMS) 202 1&1 Internet AG case study 222–5 integration with the CMS 217–21 requirements 219 TMS tools 221–2 website optimization 217–25 translation marketplaces dedicated to translation only 283 general marketplaces 283 role in community translation 282–3 translation memory (TM) basics 189 TextBase approach 190–1 tools 190–1, 199–200 Translation Memory eXchange (TMX) 185, 193, 199–200 Translationjob 283, 284 Translations.com 221 translator, selection criteria 200 transnational business strategy 109 case study 109–10 transportation costs 29 Trellian 229 trellian.com 234 trendwatching.com 79 TripAdvisor 278 TRUSTe online privacy trust seal provider 18–19 Twitter consumer market intelligence 46 growth in India 64 mobile web application 274 typosquatting 19–20 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● UGC (user-generated content) 277–8, 281 UK, geo-demographic segmentation tools 56 Ukash 23 Umbro 89 uncertainty avoidance cultural dimension 38, 166–7, 168 UNICEF, decentralized web globalization 98 Unicode 122–3, 126–8, 185, 193 Unicode consortium 187 Unicode support, International Components for Unicode (ICU) 129, 185 Unicode transformation formats (UTFs) 126–8 Unicode UTF8 274 Unilever 94 units of measurement 137 Universal Terminology eXchange (UTX) 185 unsolicited commercial e-mail messages 20 Uppsala internationalization model 39–40 UPS 22–3 Urban Outfitters 44 URL, enhancing SEO 230–1 US broadband infrastructure 14 Customs and Border Protection 22 e-businesses marketing to the EU 20–1, 22 geo-demographic segmentation tools (US) 56 import/export information resources 22 usability see website usability user acceptance see international website acceptance; website usability user-centric web page design 239–40 user-generated content (UGC) 277–8, 281 users with disabilities 248 VALS™ (value and lifestyle survey) 57 value added tax see VAT value chain analysis 184 see also web globalization value chain value chain concept 183–4 see also web globalization value chain 329 value clustering 34 Vashee, Kirti 287 Vasont 217 VAT (value added tax), EU 14, 20–1, 22 video game localization see game localization Vignette 217 VIP.com 40 virtual networks, global commercial collaborative alliances 5–6 Visa 6, 23 visual localization 134, 145–6, 191, 201 compared with standard localization 146 importance of 146 vocabulary equivalence 92 Voith Turbo 190 W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) 134–5, 185, 187, 188 Internationalization Checker 191–2 source code validation 231 Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) 248 Wal-Mart Walliecard 23 Wamba 236 WAP 2.0 274 Web 2.0 277 web analytics 45–6, 57, 248–51 web analytics solutions providers 251 web bugs 68 Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 248 web globalization 121–3 challenges 83–4 crowdsourcing models 280 definition 83 factors influencing success 113–15 global strategies for success 107–13 web globalization dilemmas in-house vs outsourcing 98–101 language in which to localize 104–6 level of localization 101–4 skills required 106–7 centralized or decentralized approach 95–8 standardization or localization 84–95 330 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● web globalization resources 298–308 academic journals for global e-commerce research 307 authoring tools 301 automation tools for the web globalization value chain 301–2 conferences 306 databases 306–7 e-commerce research journals 307 eye-tracking software 304 global e-commerce resources 298–9 global website usability 304 international business resources and databases 306–7 internationalization (il8n) resources 299–300 internationalization (il8n) tools 301 internationalized domain name resources 303 keyword relevancy and density tools and guidelines 302–3 keyword suggestion tools 302–3 link ranking analysis resources 303 localization magazines, books, trade publications 305 localization project management tools 302 localization service providers 307–8 localization training organizations 299 machine translation tools 302 metadata tools 302–3 professional associations 305 project management tools 302 SEO products and services 303–4 SEO resources 302–4 social networking sites 303 terminology management tools 301–2 translation management systems 302 translation memory tools 301–2 universities and institutes for localization training 299 usability testing services 304 web analytics companies 304 website customization resources 300 workshops 306 web globalization strategy, Marina Bay Sands case study 240–1 web globalization value chain components 184–5 content deployment and consumption methods 187 coordination of the various activities 202–7 global content management (GCM) 201–2 internationalization 194–6 localization 196–200 localization project management 202–7 localization project manager 207–8 pre-value-chain analysis 185–7 primary activity 1: internationalization 194–6 primary activity 2: localization 196–200 primary activity 3: testing 200–1 primary activity 4: global content management (GCM) 201–2 primary value-adding activities 184 reasons for content creation 186 support functions 184–5, 188–9 support layer 184, 187–94 support standards, formats, and guidelines 185, 192–4 support technologies 185, 190–2 target market for the content 186–7 testing stage 200–1 value chain analysis 184 value chain concept 183–4 web page design, user-centered design 239–40 web server log analysis 251 WebCEO 232, 234 Webcertain 236–7 webmaster guidelines for search engines 231–2, 233, 237 WebMoney 23 website content see content and design website design see content and design website localization see localization of websites website service and support, localization assessment 256 331 INDEX ● ● ● ● ● ● website usability culture-specific issues 246 issues for global sites 244–6 website usability guidelines 246–8 design features which can be detrimental 247–8 ISO 9241 (part 151) standards 247 Microsoft Usability Guidelines (MUG) 247 users with disabilities 248 Webtrends 45, 57, 251 webuildpages.com 232 Weiland Financial Group 52 WHOIS database 235 wholly owned subsidiaries 52 Wikipedia 291 decentralized web globalization 98 multilingual web support 105 quality of content 281 voluntary donations 279 Wolff, Michael 270 world citizens (consumer segment) 75–6 World Wide Web Consortium see W3C WPP Group 42 writing for an international audience controlled languages 141–2 DITA 142 writing styles culturally customizing 170–5 for high-context cultures 173–4 for low-context cultures 174–5 WYSIWYG presentation, visual localization 145–6 Xbox360 platform 35 XHTML 185 XHTML-MP 274 Xiaonei 236 XLIFF (XML Localization Interchange File Format) 185, 193–4, 216, 240 XMetal 191 XML 185 XML-based/compliant standards 193–4 xml:tm (XML-based Text Memory) 185, 194 Yahoo! 17, 32 alliance with Nokia customised icons 161 geolocation 157 global expansion 40 international sites 10, 11 linking strategy 234 multilingual customer care services 44 Yahoo! Buzz 235 Yahoo! en Español site 256 Yahoo! France 235 Yahoo! Maktoob (Yahoo Middle East) 10, 11 Yergeau, Franỗois 156 YouTube 235, 277, 278, 279 acquisition by Google 42 consumer market intelligence 46 Yum! Brands 90 Zara International 44 Zazzle.com 2, 4–5, 13, 42 Zientek, Sebastian 223, 224–5 Zinc media agency 123 ... ● ● ● ● Global consumer trends Conclusion 78 80 Chapter Web globalization strategies 83 Web globalization challenges Web globalization dilemma 1: standardization or localization? Web globalization... localize? Web globalization dilemma 6: what skill set is needed for web globalization? Global strategies for successful web globalization efforts Conclusion Chapter Developing international websites:... catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Singh, Nitish Localization strategies for global e-business / Nitish