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Tiêu đề A Vietnamese – English Cross-cultural Study of Expressing Sarcasm
Tác giả Nguyễn Thùy Linh
Người hướng dẫn Assoc. Dr. Dương Thị Nụ
Trường học Vietnam National University, Hanoi University of Languages and International Studies
Chuyên ngành English Linguistics
Thể loại Minor Thesis
Năm xuất bản 2011
Thành phố Hanoi
Định dạng
Số trang 58
Dung lượng 864,48 KB

Cấu trúc

  • TABLE OF CONTENTS

  • PART A: INTRODUCTION

  • PART B: DEVELOPMENT

  • CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES

  • 1. Culture:

  • 2. Language:

  • 3. Language and culture

  • CHAPTER II: SARCASM, PUNS AND TYPES OF PUNS

  • 2.1 Sarcasm

  • 2.2. Puns and types of puns

  • CHAPTER III: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

  • 3.1. GENERAL VIEW

  • 3.1. 1. Comments on the survey questionnaires

  • 3.1. 2. Comments on the informants

  • 3.2. FINGDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

  • 3.2.1. The use of puns

  • 3.2.2. Puns in expressing sarcasm in Vietnamese and English

  • 3.2.3. Puns in expressing sarcasm in Vietnamese

  • 3.2.4. Puns in expressing sarcasm in English

  • 3.2.5. Cross-cultural similarities and differences

  • PART C: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION IN TEFL

  • REFERENCES

  • PHỤ LỤC

Nội dung

Rationale

There‘s a point of view holding that all modern art is more or less sarcastic because the viewer cannot help but compare it to previous works For example, any portrait of a standing, non-smiling woman will naturally be compared with the Mona Lisa; the tension of meaning exists, whether the artist meant it or not As a matter of fact, it is the case not only in art but for many other fields of life including language

Gresham, in his work, made an interesting conclusion that ―Bad coinage drives out goods‖ This reflects the fact of money that debased or under weight coins will drive good, full weight coins out of circulation This assertion, however, was not properly applied in the economics only but in other fields of life as well It is the case for every realm in which an exchange occurs, with nowhere more vital than in the Kingdom of Ideas, where the coin of realm is the word In particular, we can easily observe that bad meanings or associations of words tend to give good ones out of circulation Some examples might be the words ―girl‖ and ―lady‖ Nowadays, people, especially men, tend to use the word ―girl‖ to refer to their darling In Vietnamese the phenomenon can be clearly realized in the use of ―gái‖ In the past, ―gái‖ was used to address a girl so it appeared normally in calls like ―gái ơi‖ Gradually, with the appearance and popularity of call-girls, the word has a new, more popular meaning of prostitutes Also, the word

―lady‖ has a completely different use from the previous It is used to mean a woman who is weak inside and cannot protect herself The same situation happens to the words such as ―cô nương‖ or ―tiểu thư‖ in Vietnamese Hence, it can be seen that ―negative‖ use of words is preferred to positive one Studying sarcasm would therefore be of great value to linguists and researchers Nevertheless, the issue is not paid much attention among Vietnamese researchers in detail and linguistic researchers of the world in general This research aims at discovering one of the most common and worth-studying phenomena of pragmatics, sarcasm, for without sarcasm then, as one might say, there is no art

The study aims mainly at the major knowledge of sarcasm in Vietnamese and English daily life and jokes Specifically, the difference between the use of puns in expressing sarcasm in spoken Vietnamese and English is focused Moreover, the study is confined to the verbal aspects of the act of using puns in expressing sarcasm Other factors such as paralinguistic and extra-linguistic ones are beyond the scope of the study

- The dialects used in the North, the South and the Central of Vietnam are use among which the Northern one is mainly used; especially the spoken accent of the Northern version is used quite often; and the English spoken by Anglophone community of England, America, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, are chosen for contrastive analysis

- The data are collected by conducting survey questionnaires to examine the differences in the way Vietnamese and English speakers use puns in expressing sarcasm

The research has been carried out with a view to explore the similarities as well as the differences in the way Vietnamese and English speakers use puns in expressing sarcasm thus to equip language learners with a major description of sarcasm in English and Vietnamese and help them avoid culture shock and communicate successfully

What are the major similarities and differences in the ways Vietnamese and English speakers use puns in expressing sarcasm?

The following methods are resorted to:

- Conducting survey (with questionnaires as a data collection instrument)

The study is composed of three main parts:

Part A (Introduction) presents the rationale, scope, aims, research questions, and methodology of the study

Part B (Development) consists of three chapters:

Chapter I (Theoretical preliminary): discusses the notions of language-culture relationship

Chapter II (Sarcasm, puns and types of puns): explores different conceptualizations of sarcasm, puns and types of puns, types that are used in common between English and Vietnamese and ones that only appear in English or Vietnamese

Chapter III (Data analysis and findings) analyses collected data to find out major cross-cultural similarities and differences in the choice of puns in expressing sarcasm

Part C (Conclusion) summarizes the main findings of the study, provides some implications for TEFL, and offers suggestions for further research

Reference includes all the books, articles or website that has been referred to during the writing of this thesis

The appendices list examples of different groups of equivalence in order of the alphabet

PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES

Whether or not we realize it, we are trapped by our own culture Anyone who encounters another culture quickly becomes aware of this because of thousands of little things that differ among countries For example, only one third of people use tableware to eat, another third eat with chopsticks, and the rest eat with their fingers Even within a country, differences are inevitable Knowing the culture prevents us from culture- shock Culture can be defined in an abstract way as the know-how that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living and only for a few does it require a knowledge of some or much music, literature and the art; or it might be defined concretely as the way of life of a people, for the sum of their learned behavior patterns, attitudes, and material things All in all, culture is considered in terms of the three aspects: (1) learned behavior patterns that refers to what people do, (2) attitudes that refers to what people think or believe; and (3) material things that refers to property

Definitions of culture all mention language Obviously, language is one of the most visible factors of culture People face with cultural differences in languages when contacting with someone from another country The idiom ―mưa như trút nước‖ in Vietnamese, for example can be expressed as ―it rains cats and dogs‖ in Britain, or ―it rains jugs‖ in Europe, ―rains rope‖ in France, or ―rains in basins‖ in Spain due to different cultures

Yet it is not easy to define what language is Language can be defined as any set or system of linguistic symbols used by a community of people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House Dictionary of the English Language) Or it might be defined in a short and succinct way as ―a complex and abstract phenomenon that can be realized through a number of verbal and non-verbal codes‖ (Emmitt and Pollock) Whichever definition is used, language is put in a given community and functions as a systematic means of communicating

It is often commented that someone is ―cultured‖ or ―uncultured‖ depending on his behaviors and reaction in certain situations Most of these actions are taken with utterances What one speaks when greeting or departing someone can reveal much about him In other words, whether someone is judged to be cultured or uncultured is much relevant to what he utters in social communication Therefore, language is regarded as a mean to measure other‘s cultural reality Expressed in another way, language is a system of signs that is seen as having its own cultural value

Besides, what people utter refers to common experience such as facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world that other people share Words also reflect the speaker‘s attitude, belief, and their point of view In other words, language realizes culture It is interestingly asserted by Sapir that culture is ―what society does and thinks‖, and language is ―a particular how of thought‖

People also create experience in real life The way they transfer messages directly through face to face communication or indirectly on telephone, etc brings them with numerous experience which is handed down from generation to generation The process is in a continuous flow Hence, language embodies and maintains cultural reality Language and culture simply do not independently and separately exist The language of Esperanto couldn‘t survive because it has no culture background Vice versa, no culture can exist without its own language

The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties Different ideas stem from differing language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships starts at one‘s birth

Every infant is born, in fact, quite similar It is not until the child is exposed to their surroundings that they become individuals in and of their cultural group From birth, the child‘s life, opinions, and language are shaped by what it comes in contact with

Research questions

What are the major similarities and differences in the ways Vietnamese and English speakers use puns in expressing sarcasm?

Methodology

The following methods are resorted to:

- Conducting survey (with questionnaires as a data collection instrument)

The study is composed of three main parts:

Part A (Introduction) presents the rationale, scope, aims, research questions, and methodology of the study

Part B (Development) consists of three chapters:

Chapter I (Theoretical preliminary): discusses the notions of language-culture relationship

Chapter II (Sarcasm, puns and types of puns): explores different conceptualizations of sarcasm, puns and types of puns, types that are used in common between English and Vietnamese and ones that only appear in English or Vietnamese

Chapter III (Data analysis and findings) analyses collected data to find out major cross-cultural similarities and differences in the choice of puns in expressing sarcasm

Part C (Conclusion) summarizes the main findings of the study, provides some implications for TEFL, and offers suggestions for further research

Reference includes all the books, articles or website that has been referred to during the writing of this thesis

The appendices list examples of different groups of equivalence in order of the alphabet

PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES

Whether or not we realize it, we are trapped by our own culture Anyone who encounters another culture quickly becomes aware of this because of thousands of little things that differ among countries For example, only one third of people use tableware to eat, another third eat with chopsticks, and the rest eat with their fingers Even within a country, differences are inevitable Knowing the culture prevents us from culture- shock Culture can be defined in an abstract way as the know-how that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living and only for a few does it require a knowledge of some or much music, literature and the art; or it might be defined concretely as the way of life of a people, for the sum of their learned behavior patterns, attitudes, and material things All in all, culture is considered in terms of the three aspects: (1) learned behavior patterns that refers to what people do, (2) attitudes that refers to what people think or believe; and (3) material things that refers to property

Definitions of culture all mention language Obviously, language is one of the most visible factors of culture People face with cultural differences in languages when contacting with someone from another country The idiom ―mưa như trút nước‖ in Vietnamese, for example can be expressed as ―it rains cats and dogs‖ in Britain, or ―it rains jugs‖ in Europe, ―rains rope‖ in France, or ―rains in basins‖ in Spain due to different cultures

Yet it is not easy to define what language is Language can be defined as any set or system of linguistic symbols used by a community of people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House Dictionary of the English Language) Or it might be defined in a short and succinct way as ―a complex and abstract phenomenon that can be realized through a number of verbal and non-verbal codes‖ (Emmitt and Pollock) Whichever definition is used, language is put in a given community and functions as a systematic means of communicating

It is often commented that someone is ―cultured‖ or ―uncultured‖ depending on his behaviors and reaction in certain situations Most of these actions are taken with utterances What one speaks when greeting or departing someone can reveal much about him In other words, whether someone is judged to be cultured or uncultured is much relevant to what he utters in social communication Therefore, language is regarded as a mean to measure other‘s cultural reality Expressed in another way, language is a system of signs that is seen as having its own cultural value

Besides, what people utter refers to common experience such as facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world that other people share Words also reflect the speaker‘s attitude, belief, and their point of view In other words, language realizes culture It is interestingly asserted by Sapir that culture is ―what society does and thinks‖, and language is ―a particular how of thought‖

People also create experience in real life The way they transfer messages directly through face to face communication or indirectly on telephone, etc brings them with numerous experience which is handed down from generation to generation The process is in a continuous flow Hence, language embodies and maintains cultural reality Language and culture simply do not independently and separately exist The language of Esperanto couldn‘t survive because it has no culture background Vice versa, no culture can exist without its own language

The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties Different ideas stem from differing language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships starts at one‘s birth

Every infant is born, in fact, quite similar It is not until the child is exposed to their surroundings that they become individuals in and of their cultural group From birth, the child‘s life, opinions, and language are shaped by what it comes in contact with

Brooks (1968) argues that physically and mentally everyone is the same, while the interactions between persons or groups vary widely from place to place Patterns which emerge from these group behaviors and interactions will be approved of, or disapproved of Behaviors which are acceptable are different in different locations (Brooks, 1968) thus forming the basis of different cultures It is from these differences that one‘s view of the world is formed Hantrais (1989) puts forth the idea that culture is the beliefs and practices governing the life of a society for which a particular language is the vehicle of expression Therefore, everyone‘s views are dependent on the culture which has influenced them, as well as being described using the language which has been shaped by that culture The understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the knowledge of their language This brings us to an interesting point brought up by Emmitt and Pollock (1997), who argue that even though people are brought up under similar behavioral backgrounds or cultural situations but speaking different languages, their world view may be very different As Sapir-Whorf argues, different thoughts are brought about by the use of different forms of language One is limited by the language used to express one‘s ideas Different languages will create different limitations, therefore a people who share a culture but speak different languages will have different world views Still, language is rooted in culture and culture is reflected and passed on by language from one generation to the next (Emmitt

From this, one can see that learning a new language involves the learning of a new culture (Allwright & Bailey 1991) Consequently, teachers of a language are also teachers of culture (Byram 1989)

The implications of language being completely entwined in culture, in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching Language teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage, choose culturally appropriate teaching styles, and explore culturally based linguistic differences to promote understanding instead of misconceptions or prejudices Language policy must be used to create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to incorporate the cultural values of those being taught

CHAPTER II: SARCASM, PUNS AND TYPES OF PUNS

Leaving for work, you notice it‘s incredibly cold and rainy Nearby, your neighbor is leaving too "Great weather, huh?" you say "Yes, wonderful!" he replies Then just as you are crossing the street to get to your office, suddenly a car comes out of nowhere and comes close to hitting you in the middle of the crosswalk "Thanks a lot!" you yell

The driver rolls down his window and throw some dirty words at you When you get inside and sit down at your desk, you notice that one of your co-workers is talking loudly on his phone When he hangs up, you say, "I think you should talk a little bit louder next time - the entire office didn't hear it." Your co-worker apologizes Later that day, you're in the break room talking with other co-workers One of them says that he's thinking of going to graduate school and then leaves the room "Oh, I'm sure he'll do really well!" you say Everyone laughs, because this co-worker is known for being on the flaky side

What was really going on in each of these exchanges? The fact is that the weather wasn't great; you really weren't grateful to the driver that nearly hit you, and you definitely didn't want your loud co-worker to get any louder You didn't think that your other co-worker would do well in graduate school at all You said the opposite of what you meant, and everyone that you spoke to knew it All of these instances were examples of sarcasm Sarcasm can be used in all kinds of ways – it can express everything from anger to humor

Sarcasm is an example of the so-called unplain speaking, ways of speaking in which what is said differs from what is meant Other examples are forced politeness, ritual language, affectation and speaking in aphorisms In essence, sarcasm is one of the two extremes of irony which is defined as the conflict of two meanings which has a dramatic structure peculiar to itself At first, one meaning, the appearance, presents itself as the obvious truth, but when the context of this meaning unfolds, in depth or in time, it surprisingly discloses a conflicting meaning, the reality, measured against which the first meaning now seems false or limited and, in its self-assurance, blind to its own situation Irony ―lies,‖ but it does so only as a dramatic means of bringing two meanings into open conflict Some theorists assert that by encompassing this conflict in a single structure, irony resolves it into harmony or unity Others say that irony is blame through praise and praise through blame The aspect of ―blame through praise‖ is named sarcasm As the story goes, sarcasm is ―to blame by praise‖ In other words, sarcasm aims at the defeat of a recognized victim

The definition shows the variable factors in the ironic structure including:

(1) The degree of conflict between appearance and reality which ranges from the slightest of differences to diametrical opposites

THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES 1 Culture

Language

Definitions of culture all mention language Obviously, language is one of the most visible factors of culture People face with cultural differences in languages when contacting with someone from another country The idiom ―mưa như trút nước‖ in Vietnamese, for example can be expressed as ―it rains cats and dogs‖ in Britain, or ―it rains jugs‖ in Europe, ―rains rope‖ in France, or ―rains in basins‖ in Spain due to different cultures

Yet it is not easy to define what language is Language can be defined as any set or system of linguistic symbols used by a community of people who are enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House Dictionary of the English Language) Or it might be defined in a short and succinct way as ―a complex and abstract phenomenon that can be realized through a number of verbal and non-verbal codes‖ (Emmitt and Pollock) Whichever definition is used, language is put in a given community and functions as a systematic means of communicating.

Language and Culture

It is often commented that someone is ―cultured‖ or ―uncultured‖ depending on his behaviors and reaction in certain situations Most of these actions are taken with utterances What one speaks when greeting or departing someone can reveal much about him In other words, whether someone is judged to be cultured or uncultured is much relevant to what he utters in social communication Therefore, language is regarded as a mean to measure other‘s cultural reality Expressed in another way, language is a system of signs that is seen as having its own cultural value

Besides, what people utter refers to common experience such as facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world that other people share Words also reflect the speaker‘s attitude, belief, and their point of view In other words, language realizes culture It is interestingly asserted by Sapir that culture is ―what society does and thinks‖, and language is ―a particular how of thought‖

People also create experience in real life The way they transfer messages directly through face to face communication or indirectly on telephone, etc brings them with numerous experience which is handed down from generation to generation The process is in a continuous flow Hence, language embodies and maintains cultural reality Language and culture simply do not independently and separately exist The language of Esperanto couldn‘t survive because it has no culture background Vice versa, no culture can exist without its own language

The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties Different ideas stem from differing language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships starts at one‘s birth

Every infant is born, in fact, quite similar It is not until the child is exposed to their surroundings that they become individuals in and of their cultural group From birth, the child‘s life, opinions, and language are shaped by what it comes in contact with

Brooks (1968) argues that physically and mentally everyone is the same, while the interactions between persons or groups vary widely from place to place Patterns which emerge from these group behaviors and interactions will be approved of, or disapproved of Behaviors which are acceptable are different in different locations (Brooks, 1968) thus forming the basis of different cultures It is from these differences that one‘s view of the world is formed Hantrais (1989) puts forth the idea that culture is the beliefs and practices governing the life of a society for which a particular language is the vehicle of expression Therefore, everyone‘s views are dependent on the culture which has influenced them, as well as being described using the language which has been shaped by that culture The understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the knowledge of their language This brings us to an interesting point brought up by Emmitt and Pollock (1997), who argue that even though people are brought up under similar behavioral backgrounds or cultural situations but speaking different languages, their world view may be very different As Sapir-Whorf argues, different thoughts are brought about by the use of different forms of language One is limited by the language used to express one‘s ideas Different languages will create different limitations, therefore a people who share a culture but speak different languages will have different world views Still, language is rooted in culture and culture is reflected and passed on by language from one generation to the next (Emmitt

From this, one can see that learning a new language involves the learning of a new culture (Allwright & Bailey 1991) Consequently, teachers of a language are also teachers of culture (Byram 1989)

The implications of language being completely entwined in culture, in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching Language teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage, choose culturally appropriate teaching styles, and explore culturally based linguistic differences to promote understanding instead of misconceptions or prejudices Language policy must be used to create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to incorporate the cultural values of those being taught.

SARCASM, PUNS AND TYPES OF PUNS 2.1 Sarcasm

Puns and types of puns

A large amount of sarcasm is expressed with the use of puns As a matter of fact, the phenomenon has not been regularized in theory, but it is extremely common in everyday life of any community of people

Many see puns as cheap humour, one-liners, or groaners, despite their prevalence in culture They are most often seen in the names of businesses or advertisements Others, like the writer Jonathan Swift, see them as a challenging art form, where one shapes words like cobbler bends leather ―Punning is an art of harmonious jingling upon words,‖ said Swift, ―which, passing in at the ears, excites a titillary motion in those parts; and this, being conveyed by the animal spirits into the muscles of the face, raises the cockles of the heart.‖

However the dictionary describes a pun as: ―A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words” Based on the definition, puns could be divided among several main branches focusing on the play of sense or sound, or the combination of the two In detail, types of puns in English include homographic puns (homograph), homophonic puns (homophone), palindrome, Tom Swifty puns, anagram, spoonerisms, oxymorons, chiasmus, portmanteau, and daffynition

Tom Swifty puns are an interesting and unique play on a relationship between an adverb, and an action spoken in a dialogue Originally, Tom Swift was created by Edward L Stratemeyer as a fictional character in a series of children's books Tom Swifty puns satirize the writing of these books, and their simple ―Tom said, Tom did,

Tom said‖ writing For example, in the books one might find the examples:

 'I've lost my trousers,' Tom said expansively

 'I've returned from the lobotomy,' Tom said absentmindedly

Tom Swifty puns came into being because of one of the features of English; that is the use of adverbs Inversely, adverbs receive little attention by Vietnamese speakers, and the fact that in Vietnamese adverbs do not have any specific form makes it uninteresting to play on adverbs

Anagrams are words, or phrases formed with the rearrangement of the letters of other words and phrases Some notable anagrams include Western Union/no wire unsent, or funeral/real fun This type of pun is used in written forms, mostly in advertisements, for the fact that they make an amazing effect to look at Anagrams are not possible in Vietnamese as the strict case of the tonic language is considered Since each vowel carries the tone of the whole syllable or word, moving it to a new position may make it nonsense Moreover, Vietnamese consonants are paired under strict rules; when a consonant stands in a cluster in a word, it is almost impossible for it to combine with another consonant of the same word to make another proper cluster

Palindromes are the words which are spelled the same, backwards or forwards, such as

―mom‖, ―race car‖, or ―deified‖ Entire phrases can be palindromes Punctuation does not prevent a sentence or phrase from being considered a palindrome, for example

―Dogma: I am God.‖ counts as a palindrome Scarily enough, there is a 306-word palindrome name ―Dog sees Ada‖ showing how popular it is In Vietnamese there also exist words which read the same backwards or forwards like ―móm‖, ―tẹt‖, ―tát‖, but none of them have so far been recognized as palindromes or puns at all So far, no palindromes at sentences level have been discovered, perhaps for the same reason with anagrams mentioned above

Portmanteau words are words that are formed by telescoping two other words in on themselves such as bit (binary unit), avionics (aviation electronics), and motel (motor hotel) The use of portmanteau proves the connections of sounds of the words in English while in Vietnamese which is sound-isolated, there are no such word plays

In fact, to make a pun, one does not need to play on the pronunciation, or spelling at all Sometimes, a clever redefinition of a word can be considered a pun These are sometimes referred to as Daffynitions For example, ―Flashlight: a carrying case for dead batteries‖ or ―Shin: a device for finding tables in the dark‖ and, ―Professor: one who talks in someone else's sleep‖ The definition was unexpected, and humorous It plays upon connotation rather than the denotation meaning of the word Sometimes words that sound like groups of other words can be cleverly redefined as well This type of pun is found mostly in academic contexts rather than daily spoken language

Chiasmus is a figure of speech, where wit is conveyed through the reversal of words or phrases in clauses Often used in verse, it becomes a poem of parallels The word comes from the Greek letter Chi, which looks like an X Most chiasmus follow an ABBA pattern, where word or phrase A is used in a clause, then B, then B again, and finally A A good example of this would be ―Never let a fool kiss you, or a kiss fool you‖, or ―Mankind must put an end to war or war will put an end to mankind.‖

Chiasmus is applied in Vietnamese puns smartly to express sarcasm like ―đại học, học đại‖ or ―cá ăn kiến, kiến ăn cá‖ However, chiasmus in English is much more limited than in Vietnamese because to converse and create another generally meaningful and grammatically acceptable clause or phrase is such a hard word for a language with tenses like English while it is completely possible in Vietnamese

Homophonic puns play on words that sound alike, but are spelled differently, and mean different things For example, ―Seven days without laughter makes one weak‖ The word ―weak‖ here is played upon basing on its sound resemblance with ―week‖

The relationship of meaning, sound and spelling of words are divided into different terms which are illustrated in the following figure

(Wikipedia) Homophonic puns in Vietnamese also play on words with similar sound and different meanings, but the words are spelled exactly the same, due to the features of Vietnamese that Vietnamese belongs to isolating languages - words sharing the same spelling are always pronounced the same As a result, two kinds of pun in English homophonic and homographic pun almost corresponds to only one kind in Vietnamese – ―Đồng âm‖ If to be chosen, ―đồng âm‖ in Vietnamese would be more similar to homophonic puns Obviously, being spoken aloud, two words which are being played on homographically would sound exactly the same making the pun in a jumble with homophonic puns For the reason, and for the sake of the study, ―đồng âm khác nghĩa‖ in Vietnamese would be treated as homophonic puns One interesting example of the phenomenon in Vietnamese is the following poem:

―Bà già đi chợ cầu Đông Bói xem một quẻ lấy chồng lợi chăng Thầy bói gieo quẻ nói rằng

Lợi thì có lợi nhưng răng chẳng còn.‖

In the poem, the folk author wisely exploits the two meanings of the word ―lợi‖

(benefit/gum) to make fun of the old lady who wants to get married The point of sarcasm here is that the lady wants the fortune-teller to say if it is beneficial for her to get married; in stead of answer the question with the same meaning of the word ―lợi‖, the fortune-teller use the other meaning of it as gum, so it turns out to be an unexpected answer when he says that she may keep her gum without any teeth

Spoonerisms are a result of changing around, whether on purpose or accidentally, the initial sounds of two or more words when speaking, for example ―well-boiled icicle‖ for well-oiled bicycle Others include ―sky as a height‖, ―nark staked‖, and ―dain bramage‖

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 3.1 GENERAL VIEW

Comments on the informants

Firstly, the questionnaire aims at finding out the informants‘ o Age o Gender o Marital status, and o Living area

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1: Distribution on informants’ status parameters

Informants’ status parameters Vietnamese English

3.2 FINGDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.2.1 The use of puns

The aim of exposing some informative sentences containing some puns is to find out the purposes of using puns in expressing sarcasm in everyday conversations

Table 2: The main purposes of using puns in expressing sarcasm

Purpose Vietnamese English to make fun of the hearer 15% 7.5% to make fun of someone else 36% 27.5% to make fun of the situation 34% 12.5% to show wit and the sense of humour of the speaker 37% 52.5% others

The data suggest that the reasons why the Vietnamese and the English use puns show some differences as well as some similarities As much as 34% of the Vietnamese respondents confirmed that they used puns to make fun of the situation in a conversation, only 12.5% of the English ones would agree with the choice There is a relative similarity as 36% of the Vietnamese speakers would use puns to make fun of a third party not related in the conversation, which ranked the second in the four reasons, and the figure for English users of puns is 27.5% Another thing in common is that the reason to make fun of the hearer stood at the end of the list for both Vietnamese and English speakers though with different rates (15% and 7.5% respectively) The biggest difference in the purposes of using puns lies in last reason in the given list While only 37% of the Vietnamese informants chose to use puns to show wit and the sense of the humour of the speaker, which did not show much difference with the other reasons, as much as 52.5% of the English would use puns for the same purpose In general, the Vietnamese may use pun whether to make fun of someone else rather than the speaker or the hearer, to make fun of the situation, or to show their wit and sense of humour almost equally In the mean time, most English native speakers like using puns to show their wit and sense of humour, and speakers of Vietnamese and English would agree with each other that puns should not be used to make fun of the hearer

3.2.2 Puns in expressing sarcasm in Vietnamese and English

Acceptable Yes/No Unacceptable Strongly unacceptable

Chart 1: Vietnamese informants’ opinion of appropriateness of puns in expressing sarcasm Family life

In situation A1 (―Two guys fighting outside‖), the rate of choosing is distributed almost equally among the four options with the highest falls in option 3 (unacceptable- 30%) Options 1 (Acceptable) and 4 (Strongly unacceptable) occupy the same rate of 15% Almost no one chose Yes/No option (4%) Therefore, the data lead to an initial conclusion that Vietnamese people hold different viewpoints in using puns to show sarcasm when they see guys fighting each other

Compared to what has been seen in situation A1, the rate of situation A2 ―Your husband/wife comes home late again‖ is rather different ―Acceptable‖ (65%) proves to outweigh other columns Ranked the second is the option ―Yes/No‖, only 5% approves of ―Unacceptable‖, and no one thinks it is strongly unacceptable to use puns in expressing sarcasm in this situation

Situation B1 (―You witnessed your colleague‘s wife/husband going about with someone else‖) created gradually decreasing rates for the four options with the highest rate on ―Acceptable‖ (45%), following by ―Yes/No‖ option with 30% then

―Unacceptable‖ (10%) ―Strongly unacceptable‖ occupy 15% of the total response, which ranks the third in the four options Clearly, Vietnamese people are not tolerant of someone going about with someone other than their wife or husband

As can be seen in situation B2 ―You heard on the news that a government official is discovered to take bribes‖, it is generally acceptable to use puns in expressing sarcasm as 70% of the Vietnamese people asked chose ―Acceptable‖ for the situation while only 10% are not sure about their answer Even fewer people (5%) think it is unacceptable and 15% thinks that it is strongly unacceptable Collating with the context of Vietnam society, this reflects a great interest of the Vietnamese in political issues and the fact that the people‘s intolerance towards the sin of taking bribes in a socialist country

Situation C1 (―You witnessed your classmate cheat in the exam‖) seems to be a challenge to some informants as nearly half of them chose ―Yes/No‖ (40%) In deed, the problem of privacy is a complicated question for the Vietnamese However, 30% of the people asked still chose to use puns to express their sarcasm in such situation

Interestingly, the number of people who chose to keep silent was exactly the same with 25% chose ―Unacceptable‖ and 5% ―Strongly unacceptable‖

Things did not go the same way for situation C2 (―You got high mark for an assignment for which you did not spend much time and effort‖) when most people (60%) are not sure whether or not to use puns to show their sarcasm Perhaps this is another matter that needs delicate comprehension, for once again it is related to privacy and face Still, as much as 35% of the total people answering the questionnaires were brave to use pun in making fun of themselves No one states that it is unacceptable to pun in this situation, and only 5% strongly unacceptable Hence, there is quite a great resemblance in answers by Vietnamese in this situation

Business life seems to be an open air for Vietnamese people when in situation D1 ―A colleague with bad work record is promoted‖, most people are willing to pun to express their sarcasm (60%), and no one thinks it is strongly unacceptable The choosing rates fall dramatically from ―Acceptable‖, ―Yes/No‖ (25%), ―Unacceptable‖ (15%) to

―Strongly unacceptable‖ (0%) showing an anger of the Vietnamese with unfairness especially in work

The scenario repeats for situation D2 (―You are watching an ad on TV‖) when almost all of the viewers (65%) will use puns to state their sarcasm to advertising The data reveal the unbelief of Vietnamese consumers in advertisements This conclusion is better confirmed as none of the informants in the research chose not to say any thing, and as few as 5% reckon that it is strongly unacceptable to express sarcasm

For a brief summary, it can be seen that the frequency of ―Acceptable‖ in Vietnamese findings is rather high, which comes to a conclusion that Vietnamese people are actually open to puns in expressing sarcasm

Highly acceptable Acceptable Yes/ No Unacceptable

Chart 2: English informants’ opinion of appropriateness of puns in expressing sarcasm

As can be drawn in the chart of English findings, there are absolutely differences in the English informants‘ choice to use puns in expressing sarcasm from Vietnamese findings

In terms of situation A1, most informants (60%) agreed that it is unacceptable to use puns in expressing sarcasm when watching two guys fighting each other 20% are not sure about the answer, and the number of people who think that puns are acceptable is equal to that of people who think it is strongly unacceptable

The data were distributed equally between ―Acceptable‖ and ―Yes/No‖ (40%) and

―Unacceptable‖ and ―Strongly unacceptable‖ (10%) in situation A2 In contrast with the Vietnamese, English informants are more tolerant to a husband/wife who comes home late again and again

Also with equal figures, situation B1 makes a different pattern as the rates are the same for ―Acceptable‖ and ―Unacceptable‖ (10%) and ―Yes/No‖ and ―Strongly unacceptable‖ (40%) Like the Vietnamese, English people may get confused in situations when privacy is concerned

Surprisingly, contrary to what is generally expected, as much as 70% of the English informants agree to use puns to express sarcasm if they heard that a government official is discovered to take bribes It turns out that politics is not out of interest by English speaking countries except that 30% of the people would like to play it safe

Implication for teachers and learners

3.2.1 Teachers as a means of learning a second culture

With the aim of helping students appropriately use language in general and punning strategies in particular, teachers should make their students be aware of cross-cultural differences in communication Nevertheless, the awareness has not been put much emphasis on yet by some teachers Rivers (1968: 17) argues that:

“Any authentic use of the language, any reading from original texts (as opposed to those fabricated for classroom use), any listening to the utterances of native speakers, will introduce cultural concomitants into the classroom whether the teacher is conscious of them or not By not acknowledging their presence and not making them explicit, the teacher allows misconceptions of the culturally- determined bases for the reactions and behavior of the foreign people can develop in the students’ concept for and hostility towards the speaker of the language they are learning”

To put it in another way, teaching goals should include developing cultural knowledge

As reckoned by Politzer (1959: 14), teaching a language without teaching the culture makes the language being taught meaningless symbols

Teachers should incorporate cultural knowledge into language teaching Following suggestions are recommended:

1 Access culture through the language being taught

2 Make the study of cultural behaviors an integral part of each lesson

3 Assist students to achieve the socio-cultural competence, which they feel needed

4 Point to cross-cultural differences and similarities at all levels of language acquisition

It should be born in mind that: “our culture influences our way of thinking and acting

To learn another language, we need to learn to appreciate the culture of which the language is a part We can’t really learn a second language or more precisely, learn the use of that language unless we learn about culture because many of the meanings constructed in the language are culture specific.” (Pollock, 1990: 39)

Therefore, students are recommended to:

1 Work with authentic materials, compare, and contrast as much as possible ways of expression in the source and target languages and cultures

2 Expose themselves to native speakers whenever and wherever possible

3 Try to go native as much as possible.

Suggestions for further research

For better understanding and more effective use of hedges before giving bad news, it is suggested that

(i) areas such as sarcasm and irony, sarcasm and face, punning strategies, paralinguistic and extra-linguistic factors be investigated in depth

(ii) more detailed data analysis be made to bring more light to the area under investigation, thus, arriving at more convincing conclusions

The thesis has been completed with the author‘s greatest efforts and to the best of her knowledge and understanding However, it is obvious that shortcomings and inadequacies are unavoidably there The author wishes with sincere gratitude to receive constructive and insightful comments from the readers Thank you very much!

Allwright, D & Bailey, KM (1991), Focus on the language classroom: an introduction to classroom research for language teachers, Cambridge University

Bogel, Fredric V "Irony, Inference, and Critical Understanding." Yale Review: 503-

Brooks, N (1986), Culture in the classroom In JM Valdes (ed) Culture bound: bridging the cultural gap in language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Bryant, G A., & Fox Tree, J E (2002) Recognizing verbal irony in spontaneous speech Metaphor and Symbol, 17, 99-115

Byram, M (1989), Cultural studies in foreign language education, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon

Colebrook, Claire (2004), Irony, Routledge, London and New York

Emmitt, M and Pollock, J (1990), Language and Learning, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Gibbs, R W (2000) Irony in talk among friends Metaphor and Symbol, 15, 5–27

Hantrais, L (1989), The undergraduate’s guide to studying languages, Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research, London

Hutcheon, Linda Irony’s Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony London: Routledge,

Lee, C J., & Katz, A N (1998) The differential role of ridicule in sarcasm and irony

Star, William T "Irony and Satire: A Bibliography." Irony and Satire in French Literature Ed University of South Carolina Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina College of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1987 183-209

Random House Dictionary of the English Language

BẢN CÂU HỎI (For Vietnamese informants)

Bản câu hỏi này được thiết kế nhằm phục vụ cho đề tài nghiên cứu về những khác biệt văn hóa Việt-Anh trong cách thức sử dụng lối nói chơi chữ nhằm diễn đạt sự châm biếm trào phúng

Các dữ liệu thu thập được sẽ được sử dụng vào phân tích Xin quý vị vui lòng bớt chút thời gian trả lời câu hỏi để chúng tôi hoàn thành đề tài nghiên cứu Xin đảm bảo chúng tôi sẽ không tiết lộ danh tính của quý vị trong bất cứ hoàn cảnh nào Xin chân thành cảm ơn!

Xin cho biết một vài thông tin cá nhân bằng cách đánh dấu √ vào ô phù hợp

Giới tính của quý vị

Tình trạng hôn nhân Độc thân  Đã có gia đình 

Nơi quý vị sinh sống lâu nhất

Câu hỏi 1: Quan sát những tình huống sau đây Bạn cho là lối chơi chữ được sử dụng nhằm mục đích gì? Chọn một hoặc nhiều lựa chọn phù hợp cho mỗi tình huống bằng cách chọn chữ cái phù hợp (a, b, c…) hoặc cho ý kiến riêng của bạn a để chế giễu người nghe b để chế giễu một người nào đó khác c để gây hài d để thể hiện trí tuệ và sự dí dỏm của người nói e ý kiến khác

1 “Thế nào, năm nay lớn lắm rồi đấy, đã sắp chống lầy chưa?”

2 "Ui dào, hiện đại lắm chỉ tổ hại điện."

3 “Em ơi nên lấy thợ bào, khom lưng ảnh đẩy cái nào cũng êm”

4 “Tu lão ấy thì tu gì, có mà tu hú”

5 Kỹ sư đôi lúc làm cư sỹ

Thày giáo lắm phen cũng tháo giày Giáo chức giờ đây đành dứt cháo Khoái ăn sang nên sáng ăn khoai

Câu hỏi 2: Theo bạn việc sử dụng lối chơi chữ khi thông báo/đưa nhận xét trong những tình huống sau đây có phù hợp không? Đánh dấu √ vào một trong những cột sau

Cột 2 là có thể có hoặc không

Cột 3 là không phù hợp

Cột 4 là rất không phù hợp

A1 Có hai người đánh nhau trên phố A2 Chồng/vợ bạn lại về nhà muộn

B1 Bạn thấy vợ/chồng của đồng nghiệp của mình cặp bồ với người khác

B2 Bạn nghe thấy trên bản tin một quan chức nhà nước bị phát hiện ăn hối lộ

C1 Bạn thấy bạn học của mình quay bài C2 Bạn được điểm cao một bài làm mà bạn chẳng tốn công sức thời gian học

D1 Một đồng nghiệp có thành tích nghề nghiệp kém được thăng chức

D2 Bạn đang xem quảng cáo kẹo trên TV

Câu hỏi 3: Bạn có thể hiện sự châm biếm trong những tình huống trên không nếu như

1 Bạn có dính líu vào câu chuyện đó

2 Bạn ở ngoài quan sát câu chuyện và nói chuyện với những người xem khác

3 Bạn chứng kiến câu chuyện và bây giờ kể lại với người khác

Câu hỏi 4: Nếu bạn muốn thể hiện sự châm biếm trong những tình huống trên, bạn sẽ nói như thế nào? Chọn một hoặc nhiều lựa chọn bằng cách đánh dấu √ trước lựa chọn đó hoặc cho ý kiến của bạn

Có hai người đánh nhau trên phố a Nện nhau ra trò thế thì “chí” cũng “ tử” đấy nhỉ b Xem phim bạo lực cho lắm vào rồi suốt ngày “binh” nhau c Lại có đứa thích “lỗ trẫu ăn mùi” rồi (lỗ mũi ăn trầu) d Cũng gớm đấy nhỉ, thế mà trông cứ tưởng chúng nó là hổ giấy e Ý kiến của bạn

Chồng/vợ bạn lại về nhà muộn a Lại về muộn, có muốn bị “củ hành” không đấy? b “Nhà” yêu quý của tôi đã về rồi cơ đấy! Sao về sớm thế c Có người trốn việc quan đi “chủa ờ” về rồi đây d Mình đúng là có năng khiếu đi sớm về muộn đấy e Ý kiến của bạn

Bạn thấy vợ/chồng của đồng nghiệp của mình cặp bồ với người khác a Đã chán cơm thèm lạc rồi cơ à b Người hai lòng thì như thuận cả hai tay ấy, nhỉ? Bận tay này thì dùng tay kia, quá tiện c Ứm ừm, cẩn thận khéo yêu nhiều thành ốm, ôm nhiều thành yếu đấy d “Họ giàu họ nghinh hôn giá thú, hai đứa mình nghèo dụ dỗ nhau đi” e Ý kiến của bạn

Bạn nghe thấy trên bản tin một quan chức nhà nước bị phát hiện ăn hối lộ a Gớm, có xử lý thì cũng “cá kiếm” đủ rồi b Ôi dào, có ô dù thì rồi cũng chả sao đâu c Còn phải nói, vấn đề đầu tiên là tiền đâu mà d Cái gì chả thế, có đi có lại thì mới toại lòng nhau e Ý kiến của bạn

Bạn thấy bạn học của mình quay bài a Đằng ấy đúng là người có “chí” trên đầu đấy b Luyện tập kỹ năng quay nhiều nên nó chai ra rồi c Đố ông biết con “dôi gián” nó có mấy chân? (gian dối) d Họ là những anh hùng không tên tuổi, sống âm thầm trong bóng tối mênh mông e Ý kiến của bạn

Bạn được điểm cao một bài làm mà bạn chẳng tốn công sức thời gian học a Thế ra học mà không thức cũng đâu có sao, nhỉ b Ôi giời, thế mà bọn nó cứ phải cày ngày cày đêm cho mệt c Thế mới bảo học thức là thực hóc mà, học vừa đủ mới hay d Cuộc đời đúng là lên voi xuống chó không lường trước được e Ý kiến của bạn

Một đồng nghiệp có thành tích nghề nghiệp kém được thăng chức a Ái dà dà, đã lên “xếp” rồi đây, bõ công bao lâu nay “xếp xó” nhá b Làm thế nào mà câu được cái ghế ấy giỏi thế c Thưng thì đã thưng nhưng chưa chắc đã chắc đâu nhá (thưng chắc/thăng chức) d Ôi dào, loại tiến sỹ giấy đấy không biết có làm nên cơm cháo gì không e Ý kiến của bạn

Bạn đang xem quảng cáo kẹo trên TV a Gì thì gì, muốn tốt muốn đẹp thì vẫn phải biết “củ chi” b Quảng cáo gì thì cũng phải có chân dài người ta mới thích xem c Quảng cáo với quảng mèo cũng là đồ đào lửa hết (lừa đảo) d Ngọt ngào và man trá e Ý kiến của bạn

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