Abstract This paper is concerned with the recent wave of Hong Kong
immigrants into Vancouver. The stage is set for this discussion by first
explaining some background behind Canadian immigration policy and
then discussing the history of Chinese immigrantsin Vancouver. From
these discussions we are informed that Canadian immigration policy was
historically ethnocentric and only began to change in the late 1960s. It
was at this point that we see a more multicultural group of immigrants into
our nation. The history of Chinese immigration in Vancouver, and for that
matter, Canada is not positive one. The experiences and prejudices
which were developed over 100 years ago still colours the way in which
we view one another. The recent wave of HongKong immigrants
began in the 1970s. This group is different from most others before it
because of it's scale and the fact that they tend to be well-educated,
affluent people. The result of their immigration into Vancouver has been a
booming economy and social tension. With greater understanding and
awareness on both sides we can alleviate the social tensions.Introduction
There is a school inVancouver which is offering a four year
immersion programme to its students. That in itself is not highly unusual
in our bilingual nation, what is unusual is that the language of choice for
the immersion programme is not French, it is Mandarin. The programme
was voted in by parents who believed the Mandarin language to be more
important to their children's futures inVancouver than French. This
situation shows quite effectively the transition which is taking place in
Canada's third largest city. Vancouver is a city which is consistently
looking more and more to the Pacific Rim nations, especially Hong Kong,
for its economic and social connections. Vancouver is the most asian
Canadian city in outlook. At $1.3 Billion, British Columbia accounts for
the greatest Asian investment of all the provinces. As the urban center of
the province, Vancouver is the destination for most of this capital. With an
Asian population of over 18%, perhaps it is not so surprising that so much
Asian capital is invested in the city. The draw of Vancouver for Asians has
numerous reasons including, security, an opportunity to continue
business in Asia, and a feeling of welcome. The result is that the city is
being completely rebuilt with asian money. As a consequence of this
influx, all is not well, there are tensions within the city that have recently
been surfacing. Before entering into this discussion, however, it is
important to understand the context of immigration in Canada as well as
the history of asian immigration into our nation.Policy Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction over immigration is shared between the Federal and
Provincial governments. The Federal government is responsible for
establishing admission requirements while the provinces are becoming
increasingly interested in the selection of applicants and their settlement.
The governments set out numerous controls, including those over the
ethnocultural composition of incoming immigrants, the total number of
immigrants admitted, the categories of immigrants admitted, and the
regional settlement of immigrants once they arrive.History of Immigration
in Canada Historically, Canadian immigration policy has been
consistently ethnocentric. It was only recently that the Canadian
government sought to maintain a 'white' society by selectively advertising
abroad as well as granting prospective applicants from Europe, the US,
New Zealand, and Australia preferential treatment. During the 1960s this
distinction between preferred and non-preferred contries was replaced
with a points-system. Along with the new points-system it was hoped that
applicants from all countries and of all ethnic origins were treated equally.
The effects of this shift has been significant.Fig. 1As can be seen in the
above table, the majority of the immigrants arriving before 1967 were of
European background. From 1967 onward the flow of immigrants has
been internationalized. Throughout the 20th Century the Canadian
government has set targets for the number of immigrant entries based
upon economic criteria. Periods of encouragement have included the
early decades of this century along with the reconstruction era of Post
World War II. The 30s, 40s and the recession of the early 80s have been
periods during which the national government has discouraged
immigration. At times, economic concerns have given way to
humanitarian ones such as during the Soviet invasions of Hungary and
Czechoslovakia, and during the Vietnamese refugee crisis of the 70s.
Generally, however, Canadian immigration targets have reflected
the rate of economic expansion and employment. An exception to this
rule was during the latter part of the 1980s. Worry over the declining
fertility rate and our ageing population led the federal government to raise
its annual targets despite high unemployment. Most recently, under
economic pressures, the most recent Liberal government once again
lowered the immigration level.The Geography of ImmigrationThere have
also been attempts at controlling the geography of immigrant settlement.
The Federal government stated that one of the primary goals of
immigration is to, "foster the development of a strong and viable economy
and the prosperity of all regions in Canada." Immigration in our country
has been seen as a means of promoting economic development in less
prosperous regions, as well as supporting heartland areas. While the
government has attempted to influence the geography of immigrant
settlement, they have been able to achieve few results. Most immigrants
still gravitate to areas of demonstrated economic growth. Immigrants
have avoided the Atlantic provinces, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan while
they have been attracted to Alberta (mainly during the economic boom of
the 70s), British Columbia, and especially Ontario. In the table below we
are able to clearly see that, as a percentage of their own population,
Ontario, B.C. and Alberta dominate the remaining provinces with their
share of the immigrant population.Fig. 2 An even greater degree of
concentration is apparent when urban destinations are considered. In
1991 Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver accounted for 60% of the
intended destinations stated by those immigrants arriving into Canada.
Nearly 80% of immigrants intended to settle in just ten cities. The
Table below shows the intended urban destination of immigrants to
Canada in 1991.City Total Immigrants PercentageToronto
63,891 27.7Montreal 46,300 20.1Vancouver 26,361
11.4Top Three 136,552 59.2Mississauga 9,082
3.9Ottawa-Hull 7,977 3.5Edmonton7,629 3.3Calgary 7,307
3.2Winnipeg 5,173 2.2London 3,752 1.6Hamilton 3,745 1.6Top Ten
181,217 78.5Remainder 49,564 21.5 Of all
immigrants, those entering under the business category exhibitedthe
most clustered pattern of settlement. 80% of this group chose to live in
eitherToronto, Montreal, or Vancouver. The following table breaks down
the intendedurban destination of business immigrants to Canada in
1991.Fig. 4City Business Immigrants PercentageToronto 582
15.7Montreal 1102 29.7Vancouver 1,294 34.9Top Three
2,978 80.3Edmonton 86 2.3Calgary 79 2.1Winnipeg
72 1.9Hamilton 37 1.0Mississauga 31
0.8Ottawa-Hull 19 0.5London 12 0.3Top Ten 3,314
89.3Remainder 396 10.7Chinese Immigration The first major
influx of the chinese into Canada was during the 1850sand 1860s, when
they were lured to this country by the promised bounty of theFraser River
gold rush. By 1860, the new colony of British Columbia countedamongst
its population 4,000 Asians but their numbers tended to
fluctuateaccording to the prosperity of the mines. The greatest period of
chineseimmigration occured between 1881-1884 when over 17,000
chinese came towork on the CPR. Pressured by the railway
companies, who viewed the chinese as reliable,cheap labour, the federal
government vetoed any attempts to halt theirentrance into the country
until the railway was completed. With the finalcompletion of the railway
chinese immigration remained in flux by continued togrow in absolute
numbers.History of Discrimination The chinese were always
discriminated against, they were consistentlytreated as outcasts. The
chinese immigrant was thought, by mainstreamCanadian society to be
"taking" jobs away from whites at half the "acceptable"wages. This was
said even though the chinese usually were employed in jobswhich the
majority of whites thought were beneath them. For instance,
manychinese immigrants employed themselves by providing laundry
services inmining camps, or in cities. It was at this point that the chinese
began a traditionof entrepreneurship in Canada which they still maintain
today. Fig. 5 is a picture cut out of a Vancouver newspaper at the turn
of thecentury entitled "The Unanswerable Argument". It essentially
epitomizes thecities views of itself and those of the chinese
immigrant.FIG. 5 In 1885 discrimination against the chinese received
official sanction withthe implementation of the "head tax". Originally this
tax was set at $10 but, by1893 it had grown to $500. It never had the
desired effect of stopping chineseimmigration, but it certainly slowed it
down considerably. In 1923 thediscrimination continued as the federal
government barred all immigrationfrom China; a provision which was not
lifted until 1947. Until 1947 the chinesewere also prevented from
practicing medicine, law, or becoming members ofany other professions.
It was only in the late 40s that chinese/canadian citizenswere even
allowed to vote in Canada. The numerous restrictions placed uponthis
group of people ensured that chinese communities were made up
ofbachelors as only single adult men could afford to immigrate. From
the time that Vancouver was incorporated in 1886 there was
ageographical reference to the racial category "chinese" at Carall and
Dupont(E. Pender) streets (indicated in Fig. 4 as Chinatown).
One-hundred forty-threemerchants founded associations and ran
businesses in the area, usually withattached homes, to service the
chinese immigrant population of 2,053 in 1901.At that time the community
included over 1,500 labourers. Many of theindividuals in this district
depended upon chinese bosses to find them contractwork in laundries,
saw mills, brickyards and canneries. Others worked withinthe community
in construction, restaurants and tailoring firms. Ottawa had seen an
economic interest in the idea of a cheap "chinese"type of labour and set a
precedent for widespread economic subordinization ofthe chinese.
Vancouver's Bell-Irving said in 1901, "It is the destiny of the whiteman to
be worked for by inferior races." In 1885 proprietor R. Dunsmuir saidthat
in his mines the "chinese are put to the type of work that best suits them
-ordinary, manual labour."Fig. 6 Local white workers were equally
willing to believe in the idea of a unique"chinese" type of labour. They
even resorted to violence on February 24, 1886when 300 whites invaded
a camp of chinese workers in the West End to rid thecity of "unfair
competition". With tacit approval of local police and officials, thewhite
labourers attacked the camp and sent the chinese residents of Dupont
st.to New Westminster. The provincial government stepped in at this point
andsent special constables from Victoria to restore law and order. The
rioters were eventually brought to trial. The banished chinesereturned
from New Westminster and the West End contract was completed.Many
of the labourers gravitated to the original Dupont st. settlement. It wasonly
the senior state interaction which allowed the chinese to settle peacefully
ina somewhat reluctant Vancouver. This history of chinese settlement
inVancouver is extremely crucial to the understanding of the present
situation asit still plays in the psyche of these two groups in their daily
interactions in thecity.New Immigrants There has been a shift in
chinese immigration over the past thirty years.No longer are the majority
of chinese immigrants poor, single-adult males fromrural farming
communities in mainland China; today, the dominant chineseimmigrants
are middle to upper-class, generally educated, urbanites fromHong Kong.
Some of the changes which were talked about earlier in this paper
madeto the Canadian immigration policy have encouraged more
middle-class/professional immigration in order to boost Canada's skill
profile and to helpgenerate employment. These changes have caused a
shift in the orientation ofthe immigrant population and capital flows into
Canada.Fig. 7 In particular, the countries of the pacific rim have risen
in relativeimportance as source regions for both international finance and
migrants intoCanada. Fig. 7 shows the transition in the importance of
certain countries assources of immigrants. The table shows all
immigrants in Canada andcompares them to the most recent immigrants
in the country. One can see fromthis table that Pacific Rim nations,
especially Hong Kong, have contributed themost immigrantsin recent
years. These new immigrants are not following the traditional pattern
of chinesesettlement in Vancouver. No longer is Chinatown the
destination of chineseimmigrants into Vancouver. Since the 1970s the
new wave of immigrants hasbeen moving out of the central city, usually
skipping it altogether and into thesuburbs. The fastest growing chinese
communities throughout Canadian citiesare no longer found in
downtown's but rather on the fringes. In Vancouver, thistranslates into a
booming Chinese population in such suburbs as NewWestminster and
Richmond. Richmond's population, for example, is made up ofover
one-third recent immigrants from Hong Kong. The Business-Immigrant
As was shown in Fig. 4, Vancouver is the destination for the majority of
thebusiness-class immigrants. Over 30% of all immigrants entering the
countryunder this category are destined for Vancouver, that is greater
than any othersingle city in Canada. According to Roslyn Kunin, author
of a government report on immigrantinvestment, $3Billion was brought
into Canada by business immigrants between1986 and 1991. The
majority of that money came from Asia. For those five years,business
immigrant financial investment amounted to 10% of all business
sectorgrowth. Impressive as those numbers are on their own, they are
even higher forBritish Columbia, where, in 1992, a full 25% of the
$4Billion invested in theprovince came from HongKong alone. Thanks to
these new immigrants, theprovince enjoyed a growth of 3.3% in 1992, far
exceeding the 0.7% growth of therest of Canada. The HongKong Bank
of Canada, after purchasing the Bank ofBritish Columbia and Lloyds Bank
of Canada, has become the country's largestforeign bank with assets of
$12.6Billion. Its most profitable branch: VancouverChinatown.The Exodus
Why is it that their are so many recent immigrants from Hong
Kong?Fears of an uncertain future for the country after the reigns of
power are givenover to the People's Republic of China are the primary
driving force. Many ofthe affluent members of HongKong society fear
that what they have worked formay be taken away, they fear political,
social and economic repression. Thecalming voices coming out of Beijing
have not convinced many Hong Kongresidents. China is not trusted. Also,
the political and economic climate of theterritory have driven many people
away. Emigration has long been a feature ofHong Kong life and Canada
has been, and continues to be, a favouritedestination for the
disillusioned.The Case of Toronto Vancouver is not alone in the
changes taking place within its city.Toronto's Chinese population is also
decentralizing. No longer is its Chinesepopulation centered upon an area
in the downtown core called Chinatown.Canada's largest Chinese
community is now found in six centers throughout theToronto region.
Three of these centers are within the city, while three arewithout, but the
growth is in the suburbs - Scarborough, Mississauga, NorthYork. The
transition is from a central, condensed Chinatown area into moresparsely
populated North American style neighborhoods. Chinese have beenmore
slow to move to the suburbs than other ethnic groups, mainly due to
theextremely harsh racism which was outlined earlier. The Chinese, it is
thought,needed Chinatown to protect themselves, something which,
arguably, is notnecessary any more.Why Vancouver? The change in
structure of this new immigrant group as well as theirlocation amongst the
community has caused many problems to surface.Vancouver tends tobe
one of the most popular destinations for new Hong Kongimmigrants,
especially for the business-minded. Why is Vancouver so popular?
There are three core reasons for thispopularity 1)The provincial and civic
governments have given clear signals tothe HongKong community that
the city is open for business (i.e. the sale of expolands to Li Ka Shing).
There has been a marked shift in view by policy makers inthe region
away from the East where Europe and Central Canada lie, towardsthe
West, and the pacific rim nations. 2)Asian entrepreneurs are able to
dobusiness inVancouver around the clock. Vancouver is located in such
a way asto be in perfect position for Asian entrepreneurs, it is almost
exactly halfwaybetween Tokyo and London. As a result businessmen can
conduct business inLondon in the morning, the west coast in the middle
of the day, and Tokyo orHong Kongin the evening. 3)Asian businessmen
also are begining to see howthey can take advantage of Nafta. By settling
in Vancouver they are takingadvantage of the first two benefits and
possibly using this third one. Byimmigrating into Canada and ensuring
that the Canadian content of thebusiness is 51% or greater the
businessmen can take full advantage of Naftabenefits.Social Strains As
Vancouver enjoys the economic benefits of record levels of immigration,
thecity of 1.6 million finds itself straining to accomodate the needs of
anincreasingly multicultural population. Citizens of longer standing,
meanwhile,are asking other questions: as the face of the city changes,
whose values willprevail, those of traditional Vancouver - or those of the
newcomers? Vancouver is a city which still evokes strong British
heritage, the visiblychanging population might prompt an even deeper
question, one that hasprofound meaning for the entire country. As the
numbers of Canadians of non-European origin increases, who are "we"
anyways? In contrast to the immigrants of past decades, most of whom
arrived intheir new home with little money and a willingness to take any
work that wasoffered, many of the most recent newcomers to the city,
particularly the roughlyone-fifth who arrive from Hong Kong, have both
wealth and high expectations.As investors and consumers their growing
presence has extremely visibleconsequences. The new economic
immigrants arrive inVancouver flush with cash. Theyare rich. At the
Chinatown branch of the Hongkong Bank of Canada, half of the20,000
clients have $3Million deposits. Ready to invest, they arrive in a city
withlittle industry to invest in. As a result they turn towards real estate.
Over thecourse of 1993 the real estate prices in Kerrisdale and
Shaughnessy, twocommunities popular with new chinese immigrants,
rose over 40%. Thefollowing figure shows examples of the "monster
homes" built in Kerrisdale andShaughnessy on typical lots and compares
them to examples of the moretraditional homes.Fig. 8 In late 1992,
Kerrisdale and Shaughnessy were neighborhoods at thecentre of a
heated debate over the right of new purchasers to level existinghomes
and replace them with much larger dwellings that residents believed tobe
out of place. In a district where many long-standing homeowners are
avidgardeners, it did not help that many builders felled full-grown trees in
order toaccomodate the larger scale homes, and replaced greenery with
multipleparking spaces. "There is suffering going on in the neighborhood.
People areemotionally exhausted," says Johanna Albrecht, chairwoman
of the WestKerrisdale Residents' Association tree committee about the
greenery issue. Atthe same time, the owners of the offending homes,
many recently arrivedimmigrants from Hong Kong, insisted that they had
met existing zoning rulesand had a cleara right to do as they wished with
their property. After a series of emotional public hearings during early
1993, acompromise was reached. In exchange for permission to build
houses largerthan anywhere else in Vancouver, City Hall now insists that
builders of newhomes take into account the style of the dwellings on
either side. While city hallthinks that this solution is working, many
residents are not so positive. Conclusions To be honest with ourselves,
we must begin by admitting that noteveryone rejoices in the "changing
face" of our country. Nor is it the case thatCanada opens its arms equally
and impartially to all corners of the earth, orlooks positively opun all of
their cultural differences. Every Canadian nows thatsuch preferences
exist; the task of a nation which is truly commtted to humanrights is to
defy its own prejudices. Discriminatory attitudes and acts are not
necessarily aimed at the leastadvantaged. 1995 was witness to several
cases of vocal resentment directedagainst relatively affluent Asian
minorities in cities such as Toronto andVancouver. The cause of the
disturbance is that some of these people havemoved into neighborhoods
with different ethnic backgrounds. The increasedAsian visibility created a
backlash, which in this case took the form ofsuggestions that the
community was too "concentrated" or "exclusive," orinsufficiently "divers."
Perhaps what was most positive about these outburstswas that when
people began to calm down things usually led to a greaterdialogue and a
determination by all sides to do better. For instance, a story about
"overly prominent" Chinese-Canadians inVancouver led to the publication
of some advice in the city's Ming Pao DailyNews suggesting that
Canadians of Chinese origin might do more to avoidraising intercultural
resentments and to examine their own cultural and racialprejudices.
Perhaps this is good advice for all Canadians, especially inVancouver in
Toronto. One might ask whether the ideal of a color-blind and
ethnicallyharmonious society would not be better served by putting such
differences tothe side rather than in-graining them through official
hyphenization. If we are allCanadians together, why do we continue to
qualify our geographic identifierswith words such as White, Black, French,
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. businessmen can
conduct business inLondon in the morning, the west coast in the middle
of the day, and Tokyo orHong Kong in the evening. 3)Asian businessmen
also. recent immigrants from Hong Kong. The Business-Immigrant
As was shown in Fig. 4, Vancouver is the destination for the majority of
thebusiness-class immigrants.