A framework to describe language teaching methods
Grammar translation
Grammar-translation (GT) encompasses a wide range of teaching practices, primarily emphasizing knowledge of language over its practical use (Howatt, 2004) In GT classes, language is predominantly associated with reading and writing, prioritizing accuracy over fluency Instruction often dedicates significant time to explaining grammar rules, frequently through comparisons between the first and second languages, parsing sentences, and correcting learner errors There is minimal discussion on text organization, with practice activities mainly revolving around sentence construction and translation between languages The teacher maintains a dominant role, controlling most activities and speaking for the majority of the class, while materials are heavily focused on grammar.
Audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method (AL) emphasizes accuracy in aural and oral skills, utilizing the second language as the primary medium of instruction Grammar is taught implicitly, with immediate correction of errors Practice activities focus on sentence repetition and memorization of dialogues, rather than encouraging students to create their own sentences Although the teacher speaks less than in the grammar-translation method, they remain the primary source of instruction and control classroom activities Learning materials are crucial in lesson planning, often prioritizing grammar-focused texts designed specifically for language teaching over authentic materials.
Predominant attention to aural & oral skills
Explicit & direct correction of learner errors Use of L2 in conducting a lesson
Sentence pattern practice Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts Memorisation of dialogues & texts
Structure-based textbooks Adherence to prescribed textbooks Knowledge about grammar & vocabulary
Table 2: A description of the audio-lingual method
Communicative language teaching
The term communicative language teaching is a broad and contested term (Thompson, 1996;
In this article, we propose a working definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) suitable for the Chinese context, drawing on previous research (Hu, 2005a; Liao, 2004) A key aspect of a CLT course is its focus on students' ability to effectively use the second language (L2), emphasizing practical language use over mere theoretical knowledge, while maintaining a balanced approach to the four language skills.
In the context of instructional content and presentation, the second language serves as the primary language of the classroom, emphasizing inductive grammar teaching and communicative functions The curriculum often incorporates aspects of the L2 culture and encourages the use of real or open-ended questions Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) encompasses a diverse array of practice activities, promoting interaction between teachers and students, as well as collaboration among students in the target language Additionally, CLT integrates tasks that reflect real-life situations and engages all four language skills within the classroom environment.
Balanced attention to the four language skills
Focus on students’ ability to use the L2
Use of the L2 in conducting a lesson Inductive teaching of grammar Teaching of communicative functions Cultures of L2-speaking peoples
Use of open-ended questions
Effective teacher-student interaction in second language (L2) learning enhances engagement through games and activities that mimic real-world tasks This approach ensures constant exposure to new language input, fostering communication among students in L2 By integrating practice across the four language skills, learners can develop a well-rounded proficiency Additionally, incorporating reading and writing about diverse topics enriches the learning experience, promoting deeper understanding and fluency in the language.
Listening and speaking about various topics
Teacher-developed materials Authentic materials
Table 3: A description of communicative language teaching
Backwash/washback
Backwash, also known as washback, refers to the impact a test has on classroom dynamics According to Alderson and Wall (1993), the Washback Hypothesis suggests that tests motivate teachers and learners to engage in activities they might not otherwise pursue Taylor (2005) further explains that teachers adjust their teaching methods and lesson content in response to the knowledge that their students will be taking a specific test, aligning their instruction with the test's requirements.
Alderson and Wall (1993) propose 15 potential backwash hypotheses, highlighting the significant impact of tests on teaching practices, which is particularly relevant to the current study They differentiate between the content of teaching and its methodology through two specific hypotheses.
A test will influence what teachers teach
A test will influence how teachers teach (Alderson and Wall, 1993 p 120, bold in original)
The distinction between theories of language (what is taught) and theories of learning (how it is taught) is critical in language teaching methodology Research by Wall and Alderson (1995) highlighted this separation, revealing that while the introduction of a new examination in Sri Lanka altered teaching aims, the teaching methods remained unchanged This complexity is particularly evident in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), where language use is considered essential for language development (Krashen, 1997; Breen, 2001) For instance, a teacher's choice to incorporate role-play reflects both a methodological decision and their beliefs about language Consequently, our primary inquiry focuses on whether IELTS influences language teaching, with an interest in examining its varying effects on course content and methodology.
Backwash in education is influenced by the institutional and personal contexts of teaching, particularly evident in China's state examination system (keju), which has shaped the recruitment of officials for over 1500 years (Yong’shan, 2009; Yao, 2000) Parents often invest in their children's education to prepare them for these examinations, highlighting the belief that education opens up professional opportunities The admission process involves multiple examination stages, culminating in the eight-legged essay (baguwen), which requires a strict structure of introduction, exposition, argumentation, and conclusion This essay format is often criticized for its pedantry and may impact how Chinese students write in English (Kirkpatrick, 1997; Atkinson, 2004; Kubota and Lehner, 2004) Consequently, the emphasis on examination-specific skills reinforces the backwash effect of assessments on classroom practices.
We now turn to an examination of data collection instruments used to address our research question
Alderson and Wall (1993) highlighted the scarcity of research on backwash in language education and criticized existing studies for neglecting classroom dynamics They advocated for two key research methods: closely observing classroom events and triangulating researchers' perceptions with participants' accounts of their classroom experiences They emphasized the complexity of washback and the necessity of a combined approach to explore teachers' motivations, their understanding of textbooks and examinations, and their beliefs about effective teaching and learning practices.
Observations on their own cannot give a full account of what is happening in classrooms
To enhance our understanding, we supplemented classroom observations with teacher interviews, questionnaires for teachers and advisers, and analyses of instructional materials, particularly tests created by educators.
In the Sri Lankan study by Wall and Alderson (1995), a combination of observation and interview data was utilized, similar to Qi's (2004) approach, which included interviews, questionnaires, and classroom observations This method highlights the impact of testing on teacher cognition, as discussed by Borg (2005, 2006) Therefore, we opted to integrate observation and interview data through stimulated recall, following the frameworks established by Wu and Badger (2009), Schepens et al (2007), and Badger and Yan (2009).
For the present project, we used five research instruments:
Data collection
Participants
The study involves teachers engaged in IELTS programs, categorized into three distinct groups according to their level of participation in the research.
3 being observed in a lesson and carrying out a stimulated recall interview related to the lesson
The first group, of approximately 70 teachers, completed a questionnaire related to their teaching The questionnaire and the rationale for the questions are detailed below, under the next heading, Research instruments
Participants were recruited through connections with IELTS teachers from two training schools and contacts in Beijing, Chengdu, and Chongqing, as well as through colleagues of researcher Yan Additionally, we reached out to educational institutions that advertised IELTS preparation services online All participants were volunteers, as we initially aimed for.
The initial goal was to recruit 100 participants for the cohort, but this task proved more challenging than anticipated To encourage participation, we offered an incentive of 20 RMB to teachers who completed the survey Ultimately, by the project's conclusion, we successfully gathered the necessary responses.
A total of 69 completed questionnaires were collected in an extensive search for IELTS teachers However, due to the lack of a comprehensive database of all IELTS teachers, we cannot ascertain whether this cohort accurately represents the broader population of IELTS teachers in China.
The second group included 10 volunteer teachers from Chinese universities and language schools, representing three prominent IELTS training institutions: New Oriental, Global IELTS Training, and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) New Oriental, established in 1993, is the largest private education provider in China, operating 48 schools and 270 learning centers, offering courses for key exams required by educational institutions both domestically and internationally Global IELTS, founded in 1997 in Beijing, has expanded to 55 cities across China, focusing on preparing students for various language examinations, including IELTS and TOEFL GDUFS's International College, established in 2004, is one of only four overseas training centers authorized by the Chinese Service Centre of Scholarly Exchange (CSCSE), which is affiliated with the Ministry of Education.
The International College of GDUFS, the sole CSCSE-authorized overseas training center in South China, focuses on equipping students for academic success by emphasizing English studies, particularly in IELTS preparation.
We interviewed 10 teachers from these institutions The participants from New Oriental and Global IELTS Training were teaching in different cities These teachers received payment
In Guangzhou, a researcher named Yan conducted observations of three lessons for each of the final group of three volunteer teachers These teachers, who were not part of the second group, participated in stimulated recall interviews following the observations For their involvement in the study, the teachers received compensation.
Research instruments
Here we describe how we used our five research instruments: questionnaires; semi-structured interviews; observation schedules; field notes of classes; and stimulated recall interviews
The questionnaire aimed to gather information about the teaching context and language teaching approaches, focusing on participant demographics, teaching experience, class size, student levels, and resource availability It included a second part that characterized Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), audio-lingualism, and grammar translation, as outlined in Hu (2005b) Initial discussions with teachers in Guangzhou prompted minor adjustments, detailed in Appendix 2 Utilizing a Likert scale, the questionnaire asked teachers to evaluate their practices in IELTS preparation courses, providing insights into their perceptions of teaching these courses communicatively.
The questionnaire was in English The questionnaire was made available to participants on paper, electronically and on the web using SurveyMonkey (2008) The questionnaire is included in
To ensure the integrity of our research, participants were asked to provide their names, allowing us to verify that no individual completed the questionnaire multiple times We did not retain this identifying information upon finalizing the data set, and we foresee no additional ethical concerns associated with this research method.
The semi-structured interview schedule was based on Hu’s framework for describing methods:
We engaged teachers in discussions about key elements of their IELTS lessons, utilizing statements from a questionnaire that characterized various teaching methods as prompts for our conversation Although the interviewees had previously completed the online questionnaire, we believe it did not significantly influence the data collected.
Yan conducted interviews in both English and Chinese, which were audio-recorded and transcribed Interviews conducted in Chinese were subsequently translated into English.
We assessed the accuracy of the translations by having a colleague translate one interview back into Chinese, resulting in a text closely resembling the original We chose not to correct any linguistic imperfections in the original English interviews A sample interview can be found in Appendix 3 The purpose of the interviews was to validate the questionnaire results and explore additional aspects of language teaching that the questionnaire may have overlooked, including syllabus design, perspectives on IELTS preparation classes, and learner attitudes.
To ensure participant confidentiality, all data was anonymized during transcription, and we did not keep the audio recordings of the interviews post-transcription.
We gathered field notes from three lessons conducted by each of the three participating teachers, utilizing Hu’s framework as our guide In certain instances, the teachers also supplied lesson plans and additional teaching materials to enrich our observations.
The article outlines the ethical considerations taken during the research process, including obtaining informed oral consent from students and anonymizing their contributions For teachers, confidentiality could not be fully guaranteed; therefore, they were informed of the associated risks and required to sign consent forms Additionally, efforts were made to anonymize field notes to protect participant identities.
We audio-recorded three observed lessons to capture an overall impression of the classes, with a particular focus on the teacher's statements While we did not transcribe the recordings, they served as a valuable tool for clarifying details noted in our field observations.
The final research instrument utilized in our study was stimulated recall interviews, conducted by Yan in English with each of the three observed teachers, focusing on a single lesson (Brown and Rodgers, 2002; Schepens et al., 2007) These interviews took place on the same day as the classroom observations to help ensure that the teachers could accurately recall the events discussed During the interviews, Yan prompted the teachers to identify and elaborate on at least one significant event from the lesson He highlighted a key event related to communicative language teaching and encouraged the teachers to explain the decisions they made and the rationale behind those choices.
The ethical issues with this data set were very similar to those relating to the lesson observations and were addressed in an equivalent manner
We have successfully completed a questionnaire on ethical issues developed by the research office at the University of Leeds The University of Leeds Ethical Committee has approved our approach to addressing these ethical concerns.
The questionnaires were analysed with SPSS using confirmatory factor analysis Following Hu
(2005b), the analysis assumed that there were three factors: grammar translation, audio-lingualism and communicative language teaching
The analysis of the interview, observation schedules, field notes, and stimulated recall interviews utilized the framework established by Hu (2005b), with additional categories derived from the data as needed (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Senior, 2006) Furthermore, Borg's research on teacher cognition (2003, 2005) informed our examination of the stimulated recall interviews.
We report our analysis in terms of the questionnaire, the interviews and the protocol data.
The questionnaire
Sixty-nine teachers of IELTS completed the questionnaire The largest group (24) came from
In Guangzhou, there are 11 teachers from Ningbo and five from Hong Kong Among the educators, 39 hold a Bachelor's degree, 33 possess a Master's degree, and five have earned doctorates Additionally, 47 teachers have completed courses related to IELTS instruction, although specific course details are unclear Teaching and examination experience levels are further outlined in Table 5.
Table 4: Geographical distribution of questionnaire participants
The average duration of IELTS courses was three months, with a mode of two months, although some courses varied significantly, lasting anywhere from less than a month to two years Participants typically identified one to two aims for their IELTS programs, with the most common goals being to pass the IELTS exam (29 mentions) and to familiarize themselves with the test format (17 mentions) Additionally, improving speaking and listening skills (12 mentions) and enhancing overall language ability (11 mentions) were also recognized as important objectives.
Experience as an English teacher 10
Figures have been rounded to the nearest year ni
Table 5: Teaching experience of participants
Increase chances of studying abroad/ emigration 6
Total number of aims identified by participants 97 ni Participants could give up to five aims
Table 6: Aims of IELTS preparation programs
A mere 12 respondents reported working exclusively in fixed-seat rooms, indicating that most classes are likely conducted in classrooms rather than lecture theatres, which supports collaborative group work.
Colleagues 1 1 ni Percentages are rounded to the nearest whole number
Table 7: Who designs the syllabus
A significant portion of educational programs, with 42%, is developed by teachers, while 32% is created by administrators and 12% is based on course books Additionally, materials are primarily chosen by administrators (45%) and teachers (43%) These insights highlight the substantial impact that administrators have on the teaching process.
Table 8: Who chooses the teaching materials?
Class size varied from 20 to over 50, with most participants reporting student populations of between
Nearly one-third of the respondents chose not to disclose information regarding class sizes, leaving unclear whether this was due to confidentiality, variations in class sizes, or other factors.
Table 9: Numbers of students in class
The questionnaire aimed to assess the teaching methodologies employed in IELTS programs, utilizing a numerical scale from 1 (usually) to 4 (never) for the Likert items A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using the maximum likelihood method, with the factor solution rotated via the direct oblimin method The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure was 0.534, indicating an adequate sample size, while Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a significant approximate Chi-square value of 1910.793 with 861 degrees of freedom (p=0.00).
We assumed that there would be three factors Following Hu (2005), we used a cutoff value of 0.50 in the factor loading (Table 10)
The results of the questionnaire are detailed in Tables 11 to 13 Table 11 displays the data in the original order from the questionnaire, while Table 12 organizes the same information in rank order, from least to most frequent responses Additionally, Table 13 categorizes the data according to Hu’s classifications and ranks it within these categories from least to most frequent.
Our analysis revealed a less distinct correlation between the three statistically identified factors and the methodologies compared to Hu’s study Notably, nine out of ten items in factor one, with a loading exceeding 0.50, were associated with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), while one item pertained to audio-lingualism (AL), along with two items that connected both CLT and AL In factor two, five of the seven items with a loading of 0.50 or higher were linked to grammar translation (GT), and four to AL, including two items related to both GT and AL Conversely, factor three did not exhibit the same association with the audio-lingual method.
In our analysis, only teacher-developed materials surpassed a loading of 0.50 under factor three, while teacher-fronted instruction and teacher-centred classes were identified with loadings between 0.40 and 0.50, indicating a predominantly teacher-centred methodology Although our results regarding the connection between factor one and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) align with Hu's study, we found discrepancies in the associations with grammar translation, linked to factor three in Hu's research, and audio-lingualism, which was associated with factor two.
1.Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English GT -0.278 0.531 0.298
2 Predominant attention to reading and writing GT -0.504 0.159 -0.301
3 Emphasis on grammar and phonetic accuracy GT -0.153 0.576 0.193
4 Predominant attention to aural and oral skills AL 0.444 0.441 0.358
5 Balanced attention to the four skills CLT 0.485 0.352 -0.251
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English CLT 0.457 0.338 -0.123
7 Explanation of grammar rules GT -0.512 0.633 -0.247
8 Illustration of grammar rules GT -0.351 0.417 -0.507
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence GT -0.594 0.290 0.136
10 Parsing of sentences in texts GT -0.641 0.305 0.197
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English GT -0.550 0.143 0.283
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors GT/ALM -0.117 0.331 0.116
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson ALM/CLT 0.676 0.120 -0.175
14 Inductive teaching of grammar ALM/CLT 0.176 0.330 -0.593
15 Teaching of communicative functions CLT 0.686 0.280 0.138
16 Cultures of English-speaking people CLT 0.209 0.041 -0.126
17 Use of open-ended questions CLT 0.626 0.220 0.074
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts ALM -0.337 0.554 0.173
22 Memorisation of dialogues & texts ALM -0.206 0.247 0.061
24 Teacher-student interaction in English CLT 0.830 0.299 0.017
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks CLT 0.632 0.335 0.221
26 Constant exposure to new language input CLT 0.629 0.251 -0.026
27 Communication in English among students CLT 0.781 0.282 0.006
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills CLT 0.489 0.313 -0.231
29 Reading & writing about various topics CLT -0.130 0.209 -0.428
30 Listening & speaking about various topics* CLT 0.575 0.437 0.226
31 Teacher talk for most of class time GT -0.689 0.011 0.296
32 Teacher-fronted instruction GT/ALM -0.528 0.157 0.418
33 Teacher control over everything which happens in class GT/ALM -0.622 0.172 0.412
34 Pair & small group work ALM/CLT 0.736 0.208 0.161
36 Grammar-based textbooks GT/ALM -0.412 0.656 -0.215
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities CLT 0.141 0.027 -0.271
40 Knowledge about grammar and vocabulary GT/AL -0.370 0.362 -0.116
41 Ability to use the target language CLT 0.101 0.064 -0.058
42 Focus on communicative ability* CLT 0.330 0.049 -0.087
Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood 3 factors extracted 7 iterations required Items with * were not included in Hu (2005)
1 Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English GT -0.278 0.531
2 Predominant attention to reading and writing GT -0.504 0.159
3 Emphasis on grammar and phonetic accuracy GT -0.153 0.576
4 Predominant attention to aural and oral skills AL 0.444 0.441
5 Balanced attention to the four skills CLT 0.485 0.352
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English CLT 0.457 0.338
7 Explanation of grammar rules GT -0.512 0.633
8 Illustration of grammar rules GT -0.351 0.417
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence GT -0.594 0.290
10 Parsing of sentences in texts GT -0.641 0.305
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English GT -0.550 0.143
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors GT/ALM -0.117 0.331
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson ALM/CLT 0.676 0.120
14 Inductive teaching of grammar ALM/CLT 0.176 0.330
15 Teaching of communicative functions CLT 0.686 0.280
16 Cultures of English-speaking people CLT 0.209 0.041
17 Use of open-ended questions CLT 0.626 0.220
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts ALM -0.337 0.554
22 Memorisation of dialogues & texts ALM -0.206 0.247
24 Teacher-student interaction in English CLT 0.830 0.299
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks CLT 0.632 0.335
26 Constant exposure to new language input CLT 0.629 0.251
27 Communication in English among students CLT 0.781 0.282
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills CLT 0.489 0.313
29 Reading & writing about various topics CLT -0.130 0.209
30 Listening & speaking about various topics* CLT 0.575 0.437
31 Teacher talk for most of class time GT -0.689 0.011
32 Teacher-fronted instruction GT/ALM -0.528 0.157
33 Teacher control over everything which happens in class GT/ALM -0.622 0.172
34 Pair & small group work ALM/CLT 0.736 0.208
36 Grammar-based textbooks GT/ALM -0.412 0.656
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities CLT 0.141 0.027
40 Knowledge about grammar and vocabulary GT/AL -0.370 0.362
41 Ability to use the target language CLT 0.101 0.064
42 Focus on communicative ability* CLT 0.330 0.049
Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood 3 factors extracted 7 iterations required Items with * were not included in Hu (2005)
1 Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English 22 GT 2.23 0.824
2 Predominant attention to reading and writing 25 GT 2.28 0.968
3 Emphasis on grammar and phonetic accuracy 26 GT/AL 2.33 0.870
4 Predominant attention to aural and oral skills 18 AL 2.08 0.954
5 Balanced attention to the four skills 11 CLT 1.97 0.983
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English 3 CLT 1.41 0.616
7 Explanation of grammar rules 34 GT 2.64 0.775
8 Illustration of grammar rules 35 GT 2.64 0.753
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence 41 GT 3.05 0.865
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English 29 GT/AL 2.43 0.884
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors 28 GT/AL 2.38 0.711
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson 6 AL/CLT 1.84 0.916
14 Inductive teaching of grammar 27 AL/CLT 2.36 0.932
15 Teaching of communicative functions 7 CLT 1.90 0.790
16 Cultures of English-speaking people 14 CLT 2.03 0.774
17 Use of open-ended questions 9 CLT 1.97 0.795
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts 37 AL 2.74 0.893
22 Memorisation of dialogues & texts 40 AL 2.90 0.831
24 Teacher-student interaction in English 5 CLT 1.74 0.814
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks 23 CLT 2.26 0.874
26 Constant exposure to new language input 20 CLT 2.15 0.853
27 Communication in English among students 16 CLT 2.05 0.902
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills 15 CLT 2.03 0.875
29 Reading & writing about various topics 13 CLT 2.02 0.866
30 Listening & speaking about various topics* 10 AL/ CLT 1.97 0.930
31 Teacher talk for most of class time 24 GT 2.26 0.964
32 Teacher-fronted instruction 8 GT/AL 1.95 0.784
33 Teacher control over everything which happens in class 12 GT/AL 2.00 0.894
34 Pair & small group work 19 CLT 2.11 0.819
36 Grammar-based textbooks 42 GT/AL 3.11 0.798
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities 4 GT/AL 1.52 0.829
40 Knowledge about grammar and vocabulary 36 GT/AL 2.66 0.834
41 Assessment of use of target language 2 CLT 1.36 0.517
42 Assessment of communicative ability* 1 CLT 1.33 0.598
* These items were not included in Hu (2005) R=rank order of frequency with 1 as the most frequent Meth=Methodology
M= mean frequency with 1 as the most frequent AL=Audio-lingualism CLT=Communicative language teaching GT=Grammar translation
36 Grammar-based textbooks 42 GT/AL 3.11 0.798
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence 41 GT 3.05 0.865
22 Memorisation of dialogues & texts 40 AL 2.90 0.831
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts 37 AL 2.74 0.893
40 Knowledge about grammar and vocabulary 36 GT/AL 2.66 0.834
8 Illustration of grammar rules 35 GT 2.64 0.753
7 Explanation of grammar rules 34 GT 2.64 0.775
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English 29 GT/AL 2.43 0.884
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors 28 GT/AL 2.38 0.711
14 Inductive teaching of grammar 27 AL/CLT 2.36 0.932
3 Emphasis on grammar and phonetic accuracy 26 GT/AL 2.33 0.870
2.Predominant attention to reading and writing 25 GT 2.28 0.968
31 Teacher talk for most of class time 24 GT 2.26 0.964
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks 23 CLT 2.26 0.874
1 Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English 22 GT 2.23 0.824
26 Constant exposure to new language input 20 CLT 2.15 0.853
34 Pair & small group work 19 CLT 2.11 0.819
4 Predominant attention to aural and oral skills 18 AL 2.08 0.954
27 Communication in English among students 16 CLT 2.05 0.902
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills 15 CLT 2.03 0.875
16 Cultures of English-speaking people 14 CLT 2.03 0.774
29 Reading & writing about various topics 13 CLT 2.02 0.866
33 Teacher control over everything which happens in class 12 GT/AL 2.00 0.894
5 Balanced attention to the four skills 11 CLT 1.97 0.983
30 Listening & speaking about various topics* 10 AL/ CLT 1.97 0.930
17 Use of open-ended questions 9 CLT 1.97 0.795
32 Teacher-fronted instruction 8 GT/AL 1.95 0.784
15.Teaching of communicative functions 7 CLT 1.90 0.790
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson 6 AL/CLT 1.84 0.916
24 Teacher-student interaction in English 5 CLT 1.74 0.814
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities 4 GT/AL 1.52 0.829
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English 3 CLT 1.41 0.616
41 Assessment of use of target language 2 CLT 1.36 0.517
42 Assessment of communicative ability* 1 CLT 1.33 0.598
The items listed were excluded from Hu (2005), with R indicating the rank order of frequency, where 1 represents the most frequent item The methodology employed is denoted as Meth, while M signifies the mean frequency, also with 1 as the most frequent Key teaching approaches referenced include Audio-lingualism (AL), Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), and Grammar Translation (GT).
Table 13: The frequency of items in the questionnaire in rank order from the least frequent
3 Emphasis on grammar and phonetic accuracy 26 GT/AL 2.33 0.870
2 Predominant attention to reading and writing 25 GT 2.28 0.968
1 Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English 22 GT 2.23 0.824
4 Predominant attention to aural and oral skills 18 AL 2.08 0.954
5 Balanced attention to the four skills 11 CLT 1.97 0.983
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English 3 CLT 1.41 0.616
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence 41 GT 3.05 0.865
8 Illustration of grammar rules 35 GT 2.64 0.753
7 Explanation of grammar rules 34 GT 2.64 0.775
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English 29 GT/AL 2.43 0.884
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors 28 GT/AL 2.38 0.711
14 Inductive teaching of grammar 27 AL/CLT 2.36 0.932
16 Cultures of English-speaking people 14 CLT 2.03 0.774
17 Use of open-ended questions 9 CLT 1.97 0.795
15 Teaching of communicative functions 7 CLT 1.90 0.790
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson 6 AL/CLT 1.84 0.916
22 Memorisation of dialogues & texts 40 AL 2.90 0.831
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts 37 AL 2.74 0.893
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks 23 CLT 2.26 0.874
26 Constant exposure to new language input 20 CLT 2.15 0.853
27 Communication in English among students 16 CLT 2.05 0.902
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills 15 CLT 2.03 0.875
29 Reading & writing about various topics 13 CLT 2.02 0.866
30 Listening & speaking about various topics* 10 AL/ CLT 1.97 0.930
24 Teacher-student interaction in English 5 CLT 1.74 0.814
31 Teacher talk for most of class time 24 GT 2.26 0.964
34 Pair & small group work 19 CLT 2.11 0.819
33 Teacher control over everything which happens in class 12 GT/AL 2.00 0.894
32 Teacher-fronted instruction 8 GT/AL 1.95 0.784
36 Grammar-based textbooks 42 GT/AL 3.11 0.798
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities 4 GT/AL 1.52 0.829
40 Knowledge about grammar and vocabulary 36 GT/AL 2.66 0.834
41 Assessment of use of target language 2 CLT 1.36 0.517
42 Assessment of communicative ability* 1 CLT 1.33 0.598
The items listed were not part of Hu's (2005) study In this context, R denotes the rank order of frequency, with 1 representing the most frequent item Meth refers to the methodology used, while M indicates the mean rank of frequency, again with 1 as the most frequent The terms AL, CLT, and GT stand for Audio-lingualism, Communicative Language Teaching, and Grammar Translation, respectively.
Table 14: The frequency of items in the questionnaire grouped by category and then by rank order from the least frequent
Our data indicates that the predominant teaching style reported by participants aligns with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as evidenced by the mean values in Table 12 A lower mean signifies more frequent reporting, with four out of the eleven most frequently mentioned items coded together Notably, nine items pertain to CLT, four to Audio-Lingual (AL), and two to Grammar Translation (GT) Specifically, the mean for the 16 items linked to Grammar Translation is 2.45, while for Audio-Lingualism, it is 2.34 In contrast, the mean for the 21 items associated with CLT is significantly lower at 1.9689, further supporting the prominence of CLT in the teaching styles observed.
The data in Table 10 also suggest that there is a compound method which draws on features of AL and
GT See also Tables 11, 12, and 13
This article analyzes a questionnaire by comparing alternative teaching methods and the frequency of specific teaching and learning aspects The findings in Table 10 align with Hu's results, with notable exceptions regarding grammar translation features, specifically students' understanding of English rules and grammatical accuracy While Hu categorized these under factor three, our analysis placed them in factor two Notably, only two items related to pedagogic orientation exceeded a weighting of 0.50, with three factor two items linked to grammar translation, emphasizing the importance of English rules and accuracy Additionally, Table 14 indicates that the overall pedagogic orientation was more communicative, with a mean score of 1.69.
The instructional methodology primarily utilized a communicative approach, except for grammar instruction, which favored a deductive method focused on English rules and accuracy Three elements linked to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) demonstrated significant loadings over 0.50: the use of English during lessons, teaching communicative functions, and employing open-ended questions Conversely, one grammar translation-related item, the explanation of grammar rules, also exceeded a loading of 0.50 While the mean CLT value was lower at 2.02 compared to the more frequent grammar translation value of 2.63, it still indicated a notable emphasis on communicative practices in the classroom.
In a recent analysis, it was found that the use of English during lessons, the teaching of communicative functions, and the incorporation of open-ended questions were commonly practiced However, the least frequent activity reported was the sentence-by-sentence explanation of texts, which occurred occasionally or not at all.
The interviews
Pedagogical orientation
The most common comment about pedagogical orientation, mentioned by six teachers, was negative, the avoidance of grammar teaching
I think most of students are very tired or disguised about the grammar
This may be a means of distinguishing what happens within mainstream English courses students
I believe every Chinese school, whether middle schools or universities; they did their job perfectly well I mean the English grammar [teaching and learning]
This is reflected in the fact that most IELTS preparation courses do not have a class which specifically addresses the development of grammatical knowledge
Five teachers emphasized the importance of focusing on language skills, particularly highlighting which skills require the most attention However, this emphasis may stem more from organizational structures and professional expertise rather than a pedagogical approach, as the four skills are commonly used as labels to categorize classes, with individual teachers typically responsible for one specific skill.
Labels on the timetables may also explain why a ‘predominant attention to reading and writing’, and
Aural and oral skills are prioritized over a balanced focus on all four language skills in IELTS preparation programs Many educators structure their programs around the four components that align with the IELTS Test modules Additionally, five teachers highlighted the importance of affective factors, particularly the role of confidence in the learning process.
In my class I tried to establish confidence to speak English
This was sometimes linked to the decision to avoid excessive correction of grammar mistakes but more often to speaking
In addition to the primary factors discussed, over four teachers highlighted the significance of general communicative ability and test preparation It was surprising to find that test preparation was not more frequently mentioned during the interviews, which contradicted the findings from the questionnaire data.
The findings offer a unique viewpoint on language classrooms, contrasting with the insights gained from questionnaire data Notably, there is a diminished emphasis on communication, highlighting the significance of considering students' emotions, which plays a crucial role in the teaching process rather than solely focusing on the curriculum.
Instructional content and presentation
Eight teachers said they analysed texts in class This generally related to text structure or text attack skills (6) rather than sentence structure (2)
I prefer to focus on the text structures and organisation
Seven teachers highlighted the importance of cultural and topical content in language education However, culture was not regarded as a key aspect of pedagogical approaches, suggesting that it is often utilized to enhance language use rather than being valued as an essential component in its own right.
I cover a wide range of topics in my teaching to meet the requirements of the IELTS examination, particularly in reading and writing The subjects we explore include animals, the environment, medicine, biology, education, language, and society, among others.
The question of whether teachers should speak English or Chinese in class was brought up by six teachers English did seem to be regarded as the best language
It is [the] students’ golden chance to practice their oral English and improve their listening ability
All six teachers utilized Chinese to varying extents in their instruction Three of them differentiated between two key areas: they found Chinese most suitable for text analysis and skill presentation activities like brainstorming, while English was deemed more appropriate for topic-based work.
The data indicates that while no other practices were highlighted by more than three teachers, language analysis was conducted primarily in Chinese, whereas discussions on topics and cultural information predominantly occurred in English.
Language practice
Eight teachers mentioned activities that involved students interacting with each other
Since the topics are often about some hot issues, so I arrange some debate for the students to think of more ideas and supporting examples
Four teachers talked of communication between teachers and students
In my speaking class, I incorporate interviews where I switch roles with my students, allowing them to become the teachers while I take on the student role I select a mix of confident and outgoing students, as well as those who are less outgoing, to participate in this engaging learning experience.
Communicative activities are essential in these classes, as highlighted by five teachers who reiterated specific topics While discussions are mentioned, the data indicates that the focus may actually be on brief lectures delivered by the instructor, suggesting a need for more effective instructional content.
I teach various topics because it is what the IELTS examination requires, especially in reading and writing
Overall, the dominant language practice activity is some form of communicative task.
Teacher and learner roles
The predominant role identified for teachers was that of a controller, as noted by nine educators Additionally, four teachers associated this controlling role with that of an information provider.
I think I control the class and present most of teaching content Otherwise, I manage the pace of teaching and provide other important information to students
Six teachers, most of whom had presented themselves as controllers, also saw themselves as facilitators of some kind
I think I am a guide, who guides students to finish tasks in the class
It was quite striking that many teachers saw their roles as changeable
I would use several roles rather than one role only; my role can be an instructor, a monitor, a guide, or facilitator
One teacher made a point about the expectations of the students
Many students enroll in IELTS classes with the goal of achieving a high score, often preferring to listen rather than participate in group or pair activities, as they perceive these collaborative tasks as unproductive.
Teachers offered limited insights into student roles, indicating that a controlling teaching approach often leads to students adopting a passive stance Nevertheless, four teachers acknowledged that they anticipate students to engage more actively at certain moments during the lesson.
I give students some chances for them to discuss and compare answers together I think students are easy to accept the suggestion from their peers instead of teachers
These data provide a more complex image of the classroom than that which came from the questionnaire data but it does seem that classes are still very largely teacher-centred.
Materials
Seven educators emphasized the importance of incorporating materials that are linked to IELTS, often referring to 'retired questions' or 'practice books' that feature IELTS in their titles These resources are typically recognized or endorsed by reputable organizations, such as the British Council.
There is just one criterion: retired questions will be used in my class
There was also evidence, which seems different from the questionnaire data, that teachers use a range of books rather than just following a set book
Yes, the teaching materials I use, one of them is the series…Cambridge IELTS, the past exam
I utilize various resources, including works by [name deleted] and a book titled [name deleted], among others These materials are essential for comprehensive understanding and effective learning.
Aside from the four teachers who adopted this patchwork approach to teaching materials, three teachers reported the use of teacher designed/authentic materials
In reading class, I often select some materials from National Geographic to enlarge students’ vocabulary and practice their reading speed
Identifying the extent of material usage in classrooms can be challenging; however, it is evident that IELTS-focused books are essential Additionally, a variety of other textbooks and authentic materials, as well as those designed by teachers, are utilized to complement these core resources.
Assessment
All interviewed teachers viewed the IELTS as a test primarily assessing students' communicative abilities, while also acknowledging the importance of grammar, vocabulary, and text structure, particularly in writing Interestingly, there was a notable absence of references to the four language skills, which are often emphasized in pedagogical discussions Despite this, the consensus remained that the IELTS fundamentally evaluates communicative competence, overshadowing other linguistic elements.
Observation field notes and stimulated recall interviews
Teacher-identified features
The teacher focused on providing feedback on a student's essay by analyzing it paragraph by paragraph during the class His comments primarily addressed grammar, while also highlighting the importance of paragraph structure, connections between paragraphs, and the appropriate length of each paragraph This approach aimed to enhance students' writing skills through detailed examination of the essay.
The teacher presented the first paragraph to the students using the overhead projector
Student C was asked to translate content into Chinese orally
The teacher interrupted and pointed out mistakes directly (The teacher focused on the translation of two phrases.)
The teacher showed the reformulated answer to students and then analysed one phrase, “give priority to”, for the students
The teacher analysed “rather than” and then gave one example to students
The teacher said the most important aims of the commentary were to ensure that the students have
A holistic approach to essay writing emphasizes the importance of balanced paragraphs, highlighting the need for coherence in the overall text rather than focusing solely on individual sentences While this perspective is often linked to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), the commentary primarily in English suggests a broader teaching style that transcends traditional CLT methods.
In a speaking class where students were not very talkative, the second teacher emphasized the importance of planning to enhance spoken English production The teacher employed various strategies, both direct and indirect, to encourage student participation Field notes highlight that during this lesson segment, all board work was conducted in English, and the teacher predominantly communicated in English, fostering an immersive language environment.
The teacher highlighted essential skills for the IELTS interview, emphasizing the importance of fluency combined with brief thinking pauses She suggested using phrases like "Oh, it is difficult/challenging Let me think" to incorporate comments and fillers, which help to maintain the flow of conversation while giving the speaker time to gather their thoughts.
The teacher emphasized the 'Kiss Rule', urging students to keep communication straightforward, exemplified by stating that class schedules might be postponed or altered, with further details available on page 186 Additionally, the use of metaphors was encouraged, allowing students to express the significance of the Internet by comparing it to something equally important, such as saying, "It is as important as ".
The teacher instructed the students to turn to page 161 of their textbook and allocated three minutes for small group discussions on the topics Following this, the teacher primarily spoke in Chinese to introduce the first topic, the nuclear family, while all board work was presented in English.
[In Chinese] ‘Maybe the examiner will say [In English] ‘Do you come from nuclear family?’ You answer: Yes I do/ No, I don’t
[In Chinese] Not much to say How to continue? Relate to other people
[In English] ‘Do any of your housemates come from a nuclear family?’
[In Chinese] ‘Or you can do good and bad points.’ The teacher writes ‘Advantages and
[In English first and then in Chinese] ‘You can also talk about advantages and disadvantages
[In English] Maybe you say, ‘I don’t come from a nuclear family but a nuclear family has some advantages and so on’
The teacher explained the rationale for this procedure as follows:
Many students struggle with the logical reasoning required for IELTS interview questions To assist them, I help systematize their responses for clearer, more logical answers It's important to recognize that thinking patterns differ between cultures; Western thinking tends to be linear, while Chinese thinking is often circular This divergence can lead to challenges in articulating thoughts cohesively.
The findings highlight the importance of both cultural knowledge and study skills for students to excel in IELTS While this aligns with the diverse theories of language associated with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), it is noteworthy that the teacher predominantly used Chinese during instruction This indicates a CLT objective being implemented in a non-traditional manner.
In a recent listening class, the teacher utilized an IELTS Listening paper, guiding students through specific questions before they listened to the CD Students engaged in pair and small group discussions, demonstrating familiarity with this approach from previous lessons Although there was minimal feedback initially, it did not seem to concern the students After listening, they discussed their answers in English and reported back, with the teacher providing correct responses The students' answers were generally accurate, eliminating the need for further discussion This teaching method aligns with Field’s (2008) model of practice listening classes, integrating a diagnostic approach to enhance students' skills in Section 3 of the IELTS Listening test and improve their ability to extract detailed information.
The analysis of questions is not commonly associated with mainstream Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), but it aligns with certain CLT models that emphasize skill development and practice, particularly in exam-taking contexts rather than traditional communication methods Furthermore, the teaching style observed is characteristic of CLT.
Researcher identified features
For the first teacher, the researcher focused on teacher/student roles because the class seemed teacher- centred This is reflected in the field notes cited above The teacher said:
As the class director, I initiate discussions by presenting a topic for students to contemplate After allowing them several minutes to gather their thoughts, they share their opinions, fostering their critical thinking skills and encouraging independent thought.
The observation of a class may not accurately reflect whether it is more teacher- or student-focused, as perceived by the researcher While the class appeared to be teacher-centered, students might have been engaged in developing their cognitive skills internally This internal process of development was not captured by the data collection methods used.
For the second teacher, the researcher focused on the use of Chinese in the class
Because I notice that some students in my class could not speak English, this is the reason to speak Chinese This kind of training classes, they don’t have any kind of selection [for students’ English level] before the class, so we [have] various kinds of students in the class And actually, I also notice that we used to use Chinese in our language training classroom
Using Chinese in short training sessions is more efficient While I would prefer English for longer training periods, such as a semester or three months, my primary goal for this brief training is to maximize efficiency.
Institutional factors significantly influence the effectiveness of communicative teaching strategies, particularly in very short courses where students may be accustomed to traditional teaching methods Additionally, the argument suggests that utilizing the first language (L1) can be more efficient; however, current knowledge does not allow us to determine the ideal balance between the use of the first language and the second language (L2) in the classroom.
For the third teacher, the researcher focused on the use of small group work
In my classroom, I prioritize understanding how students are engaging with the material through pair work, which helps me assess the effectiveness of my teaching pace This interactive methodology not only fosters a more passionate learning environment but also enhances teacher-student interaction, especially in a medium-sized class The benefits of this approach include increased student cooperation and trust, leading to a harmonious teaching atmosphere where students feel comfortable and supported.
The significance of institutional factors, such as class size and course duration, is crucial for fostering trust in the learning environment Additionally, the teaching style demonstrated by the instructor may be influenced by his personal character and approach to education Furthermore, the impact of testing on learning outcomes will be shaped by the teacher's perspectives on language, teaching, and learning methodologies.
The stimulated recall interviews reveal a diverse range of teaching aims and styles among IELTS instructors, highlighting that the backwash effect of IELTS primarily influences teaching objectives rather than procedures Additionally, the role of the mother tongue in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is significant, as teachers frequently utilize it, which may not always yield positive learning outcomes Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting that grammar-focused teaching is more prevalent than indicated by the questionnaire and interview data.
To what extent is communicative language teaching a feature of IELTS classes in China?
The teaching style of IELTS in China is primarily communicative, though our findings indicate a mixed approach Evidence suggests that the examination's influence is more significant on pedagogic aims than on actual teaching and learning practices Classes are often more teacher-centered than typically seen in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) environments, with a prevalent use of the first language (L1) This observation aligns with Liu's (2006) research, which highlights that second language instruction in Chinese universities and language schools predominantly follows a traditional, teacher-centered model.
The study did not directly investigate the reasons behind the teaching methodologies employed in IELTS classes; however, it suggests that teacher-centredness and the use of the L1 are associated with traditional language teaching approaches This likely reflects enduring perspectives on language learning that align with educational cultures in China Additionally, these cultural influences also shape language instruction through the effects of administrative staff on teaching and learning practices.
Teacher-fronted classroom discourse and the use of the L1 in Chinese IELTS preparation programs may offer some opportunities for skill testing and language analysis; however, both features present significant challenges This article identifies three primary reasons that contribute to the issues surrounding teaching methodologies in these programs.
Firstly, most language schools, such as New Oriental and Global IELTS are commercial organisations
Traditional teaching styles are often favored by students and parents due to their familiarity and perceived effectiveness in improving test scores However, the evidence supporting this belief is limited, highlighting the need for language education researchers to establish a stronger empirical foundation Specifically, it is essential to investigate whether Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or its components, such as learner-centered approaches and minimizing the use of the first language (L1), contribute more significantly to language development compared to teacher-centered methods that frequently incorporate the learners' L1.
Most teachers in IELTS preparation programs are non-native English speakers, which limits their ability to provide native speaker intuitions and serve as direct language models for students As a result, they may struggle to discuss topics like organization and argumentation in English, often relying on explanations in Chinese from their own English learning experiences.
The reliance on personal learning experiences in IELTS preparation is heightened by insufficient teacher development opportunities While the British Council organizes various IELTS conferences, these events primarily emphasize the IELTS process and promote sponsored language schools, leaving a gap in accessible information regarding effective IELTS teaching methodologies.
Our research validated Hu's (2005) questionnaire as an effective tool for identifying Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) classes However, we did not establish a clear connection between various factors and the Active Learning (AL) or Grammar Translation (GT) teaching styles This discrepancy may arise from our participants being practicing teachers, in contrast to Hu's participants who were in a teacher education program Consequently, our participants may have been more attuned to the complexities of real classroom dynamics, whereas Hu's group might have been more influenced by theoretical methodologies This suggests that teachers may tend to exaggerate the differences between teaching methods when not actively engaged in classroom instruction.
The differences between our findings and Hu’s also provide another perspective on the relationship between methods and language teaching So Richards says:
While traditional views of teacher-learning often viewed the teachers’ task as the application of theory to practice, more recent views see teacher-learning as the theorisation of practice
The questionnaire
Discussion with teachers in Guangzhou led us to add two new items, one related to language practice,
This article emphasizes the importance of listening and speaking on diverse topics while assessing communicative ability We have updated the coding for authoritative texts from GT/AL to CLT, as we anticipate that IELTS course books should align with Communicative Language Teaching principles.
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this survey The purpose of this survey is to gain an authentic understanding of the IELTS-related courses.
We are conducting a survey on the state of teaching in China and would appreciate your assistance Please respond based on your genuine thoughts and actual practices.
题 ， 对 于 您 提 供 的 相 关 信 息 我 们 会 保 密 。 无 需 填 写 全 名 ， 不 必 有 任 何 顾 忌 。
This research aims to investigate the teaching methods employed in IELTS preparation classes in China The study utilizes a questionnaire adapted from Hu, G (2005) in his work "Contextual Influences on Instructional Practices: A Chinese Case for an Ecological Approach to ELT," published in TESOL.
1 Which city are you working now In China?
Guangzhou ( );Beijing ( );Ningbo ( );Chengdu ( ); Chongqing ( )
2 What is your family Name (只填姓in Pinyin)?
3 For how many years have you been an English teacher?
4 For how many years have you worked in the school/college/university where you now work?
5 For how many years have you taught students in an exam class?
6 For how many years have you taught IELTS preparation classes?
7 List any professional training courses you have done
8 Have you taken IELTS as a candidate?
9 What qualifications have you taken in China? (one or more choices)
10 What qualifications have you taken outside China? (one or more choices)
11 How long do your IELTS courses normally last? Please give the answer in months _
12 What are the aims of the IELTS course you teach on? Use as many lines as you need _
13 How is your classroom arranged?
The seats can be moved ( );
I am sometimes in rooms which have fixed seats and sometimes in rooms where the seats can be moved ( );
14 Who designs the syllabus for your classes?
The administrators in my organisation ( );
The administrators in my organisation ( );
15 Who chooses the teaching materials for your classes?
The administrators in my organisation ( );
The administrators in my organisation ( );
16 How are your classes evaluated? (You may choose more than one answer.)
By students ( ); By my colleagues ( );
By me ( ); By the administration ( );
There is no evaluation( ); others, please specify: _;
17 How many students do you have on average in your IELTS classes?
Us u a ll y Fr equent ly Oc c a s io n a ll y Ne v e r
The next six questions are designed to find out how your
IELTS courses are organised For each item, you will be presented with a statement about language teaching Please choose the most appropriate answer for that statement.
1 Focus on students’ knowledge of the rules of English
侧重教授学生英语规则
2 Predominant attention to reading & writing 以教授读写为主
3 Emphasis on grammatical and phonetic accuracy
强调语法和语音的准确性
4 Predominant attention to aural & oral skills 以听说技能为主
5 Balanced attention to the four language skills 对于四种语言技能都侧重
6 Focus on students’ ability to use English 侧重学生使用英语的能力
These questions relate to instructional content and presentation
7 Explanation of grammar rules 解释语法规则
8 Illustration of grammar rules 分析语法规则
9 Explanation of texts sentence by sentence 逐句解释文章
10 Parsing of sentences in texts 分析文章中句子
11 Contrastive analysis of Chinese & English 使用中英文对比分析
12 Explicit & direct correction of learner errors
详细直接地指出学习者所犯错误
13 Use of English in conducting a lesson 授课中使用英语
14 Inductive teaching of grammar 语法知识的归纳教学
15 Teaching of communicative functions 教授交际功能
16 Cultures of English-speaking people 英语为母语者的文化
17 Use of open-ended questions 采用开放式题目提问
Us u a ll y Fr equent ly Oc c a s io n a ll y Ne v e r
These questions relate to the ways in which language is practised
18 Grammar exercises 语法练习
19 Translation exercises 翻译练习
20 Sentence pattern practice 句式练习
21 Reading-aloud of dialogues & texts 朗读对话与课文
22 Memorization of dialogues & texts 记忆对话与课文内容
23 Prepared language performance 准备语言性表演
24 Teacher-student interaction in English 师生间用英文互动
25 Games & activities resembling real-world tasks 模拟真实生活的游戏与活动
26 Constant exposure to new language input 始终让学生浸入语言输入的环境
27 Communication in English among students 学生相互英语交际
28 Integrated practice in the four language skills
结合四种语言技巧进行综合练习
29 Reading & writing about various topics 各种话题的读写练习
30 Listening & speaking about various topics 各种话题的听说练习
These questions relate to teacher and learner roles
31 Teacher talk for most of class time 教师的讲述占用大部分课堂时间
32 Teacher-fronted instruction 教师导向教学
33 Teacher control over class 教师主导课堂
34 Pair & small group work 教师控制课堂相关事宜
35 Peer feedback & evaluation 同学间的反馈与评估
These questions relate to learning materials
36 Grammar-based textbooks 侧重语法的教材
37 Adherence to prescribed textbooks from IELTS authorities
坚持使用雅思官方指定的教材
38 Teacher-developed materials 教师自己整理教材
39 Authentic materials 真实材料
These questions relate to assessment
40 A focus on knowledge about grammar and vocabulary
雅思侧重测试语法和词汇的知识
41 A focus on the ability to use the target language
雅思侧重测试英语语言的能力
42 A focus on communicative ability 雅思侧重测试交际的能力
Thank you for you help with the survey
After you finish this, please send one email to Oscar Yan: xiaobiaoyan@gmail.com to inform that you have finished this survey
A sample interview
O The first question is about IELTS courses’ organisation What kind of abilities do your students achieve from your class?
G What I teach is comprehensive IELTS, students could learn four language skills, which can help students improve their basic language ability in order to improve their general IELTS scores
O Then, in your questionnaire, you mentioned that you ‘usually’ use for ‘focus on ability to use
English’ and ‘balanced attention to the four language skills’ in your teaching How could you do that? And why do you make take decision?
G As I mentioned just now, because this is comprehensive IELTS course, I have focused on four language skills and students’ real language abilities’ improvement This is the requirement from course curriculum
When considering the language of instruction for IELTS classes, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of English in delivering content The preference for English in conducting lessons stems from its relevance to the IELTS exam, which primarily assesses English proficiency Moreover, certain concepts and nuances may be more effectively communicated in English, enhancing understanding and engagement among students Ultimately, the choice of language should align with the goals of the course and the needs of the learners.
In my four-month language training course, I primarily use English to enhance students' overall abilities However, if students struggle to comprehend the material or my explanations, I will utilize Chinese for translation to facilitate better understanding Consequently, English is the dominant language in my classroom.
O It is quite natural It seemed that you usually use ‘teaching of communicative functions’ and
‘open-ended questions’ Why do you do that?
Communicative functions in teaching are essential for fostering student interaction, as I provide opportunities for students to engage in conversation with each other and with me through task-based activities By incorporating open-ended questions, I encourage students to elaborate on their responses, which is crucial for success in the IELTS speaking section Moreover, these questions promote critical thinking and analysis, allowing students to explore writing content without constraints.
O OK What are the reasons why you ‘parse of sentences in texts’?
G I just paraphrase some important sentences from the textbook I don't like to explain the text in detail; instead, I prefer to focus on the text structures and organization
O The third one is the ways in which language is practiced Why do you choose to use
‘integrated practice in the four language skills’ in your class?
In my comprehensive course, I focus on integrated practice across the four language skills, aligning with the curriculum requirements I believe that IELTS preparation should not be divided into separate sections, as this approach does not effectively address the interconnected nature of the exam.
O It seems that you make more use of teacher-student interaction in English Why did you make this decision?
Enhancing communication between students and teachers is essential for a successful English course Without interaction, it's challenging to envision an effective learning environment Moreover, increased communication fosters trust and confidence in teachers, ultimately benefiting the overall educational experience.
O The fourth question is about Teacher and Learner Roles What do you think is your role in your class?
G Well…I think I am a guide, who guides students to finish tasks in the class; I am an information provider, who provides some language knowledge and testing skills for students
O Why do you choose to use teacher-fronted instruction?
This four-month training course has limited time, which restricts opportunities for student discussions and self-directed learning Consequently, I rely on teacher-led instruction to effectively convey essential information.
O It seemed that your students have more feedback and evaluation and students’ pair & small group work among them Why do you do that?
G All right I give students some chances for them to discuss and compare answers together
I think students are easy to accept the suggestion from their peers instead of teachers
Secondly, I think some solid contents are needed in some speaking and writing tasks, and group discussion will help them to achieve this goal
O The fifth one is concerning learning materials How do you select the teaching materials?
What are your criteria for materials selection?
I selected this teaching textbook primarily because it is recommended by the British Council and widely used by British language training schools for IELTS preparation This endorsement influenced my choice of materials, alongside supplementary handouts sourced from IELTS authorities, including Cambridge IELTS and retired exam papers.
O The sixth question is about assessment What do you think is the focus of IELTS test?
The IELTS test primarily assesses communicative abilities, making them the central focus of the evaluation In addition to communication skills, the test also measures language knowledge and proficiency Furthermore, grammar and vocabulary play significant roles in the overall assessment for IELTS candidates.
Extract from a stimulated recall interview
The focus of today’s course is to make some comments on students’ essays
From my point of view, comments are important for students, because comments can let students know their problems in writing
Thus, they can avoid the same mistakes in IELTS test Comments can also let students know what are the appropriate ways to develop their writing topics
Since there are not so many students in the class, I have enough time to analyse each student’s composition and point out their mistakes
Some mistakes are typical, which should draw students’ attention
Many Chinese English-learners complain that they write a lot but no one can tell their problems This is the purpose of this class
To develop a paragraph is the most important thing in essay writing But it does not mean that putting paragraphs together can make a good essay
A good essay, first things first, should have a reasonable and clear structure So to have a holistic view of an essay is the primary thing
To maintain balance in an essay, students should focus on the word count of each paragraph, ensuring that they are evenly structured Balanced paragraphs contribute to the overall coherence and flow of the essay, enhancing readability and engagement.
One reason is that some students in the class failed to finish the assignment I left for them So I only analysed one student’s essay (as one example)
The other essay is also an assignment I left for them several days ago And I think I should give some comments on this essay
I need to check whether they understood the topic clearly and how well they expressed themselves
The students have received nearly three months’ training They have practiced a lot of topics during the course
So I think it’s time for me to give them some new and difficult topics For one purpose, they can broaden their thoughts and practice their writing skills
For another, the topics I selected are all from the old versions, which I think will be re-tested in IELTS exam
I think I am the director of the class
Usually, I give a topic to the students first Then, I will give them several minutes to think about it and present their own opinions
In this way, the students can develop their ability to think by themselves
And then, I will collect all the students’ ideas and rearrange them
Thus, in the class, all the students can make contributions to an essay.