Introduction
Reading has always been fundamental to university education, historically referred to as "reading the subject." Today, the emphasis has shifted towards the importance of engaging intelligently with sources, which is essential for academic literacy According to Taylor (2009), the majority of student activities in academia—such as writing essays, participating in lectures, and discussing ideas in tutorials and seminars—are rooted in this engagement with reading materials.
Reading plays a crucial role in university studies, particularly in the field of language testing This significance is evident in the emphasis placed on reading skills within various language assessments utilized by universities for student selection Over the past 30 years, prominent language tests such as ELTS, IELTS, and TOEFL have consistently incorporated a dedicated reading component, highlighting its importance across different testing formats.
The validity of tests assessing students' academic reading abilities is a critical concern for researchers and test developers, as it must accurately reflect the psychological reality of the behavior being evaluated (Hamp-Lyons, 1990) In this context, academic reading proficiency validity encompasses several key areas: the task stimulus, which refers to the texts presented to candidates; the task demand, which involves the specific types of interactions required between the reader and the text; and the task processes, which pertain to the actual interactions that occur while completing the test (McNamara, 1999).
Recent IELTS validation research has primarily focused on the task stimulus component of the reading test, as highlighted by Clapham (1996) More recent studies, such as the work by Weir, Hawkey, Green, and Devi (2009), have begun to explore task processes, particularly examining performance conditions and their impact on first-year university students' reading experiences However, there remains a lack of recent validation studies addressing the task demands of the current reading test and their relevance to the reading tasks and activities expected in university programs.
This report examines the appropriateness of test items in the IELTS Academic Reading Test concerning the reading and literacy demands of university studies The research specifically addresses two key questions: first, how can the items in the IELTS academic reading module be systematically analyzed and classified? Second, what insights does a taxonomic analysis of these test items provide regarding the underlying reading construct of the IELTS academic reading module?
1 One needs to go back to Alderson‟s (1990a; 1990b) major work on the testing of reading comprehension skills
5 iii) what is the degree of correspondence between the reading skills required on the
IELTS test and those typically required on a range of undergraduate university programs?
The research utilized two methods: a comparative analysis of IELTS test items alongside assessment tasks from various undergraduate courses, and semi-structured interviews with academic staff teaching these courses The findings aim to provide recommendations for adapting the IELTS Academic Reading Test to better align with the reading skills necessary in formal academic environments.
Review of literature
The IELTS Academic Reading Test
The IELTS system offers two reading tests: the General Training module, which evaluates basic survival skills in social and educational contexts, and the Academic module, focused on English language skills necessary for academic study or professional recognition This study specifically examines the Academic module, which tests skills such as following instructions, identifying main ideas, recognizing underlying concepts, understanding relationships between ideas, and making logical inferences.
The IELTS Academic Reading Test consists of three sections, each centered on a distinct reading passage These passages, averaging 750 words, are sourced from various materials such as magazines, journals, books, and newspapers They cover topics of general interest and are tailored for a non-specialist audience.
The article outlines that there are 40 tasks designed to assess students' comprehension of reading passages within a 60-minute timeframe These tasks are defined by IELTS (1999) and are intended to evaluate various aspects of understanding the material.
notes/summary /diagram/flow chart/table completion
choosing from a heading bank for identified paragraphs/sections of text
identification of writer‟s view/attitudes/claims
According to Alderson (2000), the IELTS Reading Test employs various methods to assess comprehension of a single passage, which he considers a valuable aspect This approach reflects real-life reading experiences, where individuals engage with texts in diverse ways (p 206).
Official IELTS Practice Materials (2007) include the following range of tasks used with each reading passage:
Passage 1: section-summary match; gapped summary; true/false/not given
Passage 2: true/false/not given; information-category match; multiple choice
Passage 3: section-summary match; sentence completion
Since its introduction in 1989, the IELTS Academic Reading Test has undergone significant changes, particularly the removal of subject-specific reading subtests and the thematic link between Reading and Writing tests These adjustments were based on extensive evaluations in the early 1990s, which indicated that a single test could effectively assess candidates from various disciplines without bias The separation of the Reading and Writing tests aimed to enhance fairness and clarity in assessing each skill, as candidates demonstrated varying levels of engagement with reading material in their writing tasks.
The current study focuses solely on reading tasks, excluding the accompanying reading passages However, this separation may limit the overall perspective, as noted by Alderson (2000), who suggests a potential relationship between text type and the corresponding tasks or techniques This concept will be revisited briefly in the report's conclusion.
Construct validity
This study investigates the construct validity of the IELTS Reading Test, which measures how well the test reflects the underlying model of reading necessary for academic success Construct validity is linked to the essential abilities that readers must possess to meet the demands of university-level study, such as scanning for specific information As highlighted by Alderson (2000), if scanning is crucial for academic reading, then the test should effectively assess this skill Additionally, Bachman and Palmer (1996) emphasize that considering both the skills and task structure can enhance the authenticity of test tasks, leading to more valid assessments of reading abilities.
The construct validity of large-scale public tests is crucial, especially given their direct impact on related educational programs Ensuring construct validity in these assessments is essential as it influences curriculum development and implementation.
7 and classroom practice through the so-called “test washback” (Alderson and Wall, 1993) As Messick (1996, p 252) points out:
[i]f important constructs or aspects of constructs are underrepresented on the test, teachers might come to overemphasise those constructs that are well-represented and downplay those that are not
Washback is considered harmful then when there is a serious disjunct between a test‟s construct of reading and the broader demands of real world or target language tasks
The IELTS test plays a pivotal role in determining eligibility for English-speaking university entrance based on English language proficiency With a growing number of international students and universities requiring IELTS scores, there has been a significant expansion of the test and a heightened focus on IELTS preparation programs in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses worldwide This increased prominence raises concerns about test washback, highlighting the necessity for the reading component of the IELTS to accurately reflect the reading demands of university study Consequently, ensuring the authenticity of the reading test, while navigating practical constraints, has driven the motivation for this study.
Dimensions of reading
The current project explores diverse theories of reading, focusing on the relationship between textual meanings and the reader The traditional "transmission model" posits that texts contain stable, objective meanings that proficient readers can identify and reproduce Carroll (1964) describes reading as the process of reconstructing messages embedded in printed text, a view that largely influences many reading comprehension assessments, particularly those utilizing multiple-choice formats (Hill & Parry, 1992; Alderson).
An increasingly accepted perspective in academia, particularly in education and the humanities, posits that texts possess multiple meanings shaped by individual readers' engagement Widdowson (1979) emphasizes that since conceptual worlds differ, exact alignment of meanings between coder and encoder is impossible Despite the rise of receptionist theories, there remains hesitation, even among post-modernists, to fully embrace the idea that all subjective interpretations of a text can be valid Researchers argue that both strong receptionist and transmissionist views represent idealized reading models and should be seen as endpoints on a spectrum that ranges from reader-oriented to text-oriented interpretations of meaning.
Reading encompasses various definitions and interpretations, leading to differing perspectives on the processes involved Traditionally, these perspectives have centered around two main approaches: bottom-up information processing, which emphasizes the detailed analysis of text elements.
Recent research in reading processes highlights two main approaches: micro-level processing, which focuses on the analysis of letters, words, phrases, and sentences, and top-down analysis-by-synthesis, which examines macro-level constituents such as genre, text structure, and background knowledge A shift towards an interactive, hermeneutic approach has emerged, emphasizing the bidirectional nature of these processes (Hudson, 1998) This project utilizes insights from reading processes to identify the primary types of processing that test items target and the different levels of text involved.
Frameworks used in reading assessment studies
Research on reading practices has often utilized taxonomies to categorize various skills and sub-skills A significant contribution to this field is Munby’s (1978) comprehensive list of general language skills, which has influenced syllabus and material design, as well as testing methods Although Munby noted that his list was "not exhaustive," it identified 266 skills organized into 54 groups Among these, specific reading skills include understanding the communicative function of sentences, recognizing grammatical cohesion devices that link parts of texts, and scanning for specific information through targeted searches.
Munby’s scheme reveals a fundamental distinction between basic reading skills focused on simple text comprehension, such as understanding explicitly stated information, and more advanced skills that require interpretation, which involves deriving meaning beyond the text itself.
In recent years, efforts have been made to simplify taxonomies of reading skills into a more manageable catalog Carver (1997) identifies five fundamental elements of reading: scanning, skimming, rauding, learning, and memorizing Rauding refers to a natural reading process where adults engage with material that is easy to comprehend Additionally, Grabe and Stoller (2002) categorize reading activities into seven distinct headings, further refining the understanding of reading skills.
1 Reading to search for simple information
3 Reading to learn from texts
5 Reading to write (or search for information needed for writing)
One notes that this latter list takes on a slightly simplified form in a recent study conducted for the TOEFL reading test (Enright et al, 2000):
1 Reading to find information (or search reading)
4 Reading to integrate information across multiple texts
The taxonomy developed by Weir and Urquhart (1998) is particularly valuable for this project, as evidenced by its application in a recent study on the IELTS academic reading test (Weir et al., 2009) Instead of listing discrete skills, their taxonomy focuses on two dimensions: reading level and reading type Reading level differentiates between global and local text processing, while reading type contrasts "careful" reading, which involves detailed analysis, with "expeditious" reading, aimed at quickly extracting relevant information This componential matrix offers a dynamic model capable of generating various reading modes, enhancing our understanding of reading strategies.
In the discussion of reading taxonomies, there is often ambiguity regarding the specific construct being defined, with "reading skill" being the most frequently referenced term (e.g., Munby) However, various other terms and concepts, such as "processes" (Carver, 1997), are also commonly utilized in this context.
The terms "purposes" (Enright et al., 2000; Weir et al., 2009) and "strategies" (Purpura, 1998) refer to the abilities or behaviors of readers, but this project shifts the focus away from reader qualities Instead, it emphasizes the reading task as an external entity, defining the preferred construct as "activity," specifically "prescribed activity."
Method
Towards an analytical framework
The analytical framework was developed using a syncretic approach, initially focusing on both IELTS and academic tasks to identify key differences in reading tasks This process involved referencing relevant theoretical frameworks to refine the classification scheme, similar to the methodology used in a validation study of the IELTS writing test by Moore and Morton (2007) Ultimately, the framework was significantly informed by the componential schema proposed by Weir and Urquhart (1998).
In our study of IELTS and academic reading tasks, we identified the dimension of "level of engagement" with text, which measures the extent to which a reader interacts with a text while completing a specific task Our preliminary survey revealed that some tasks focused on narrow sections of a text, such as single sentences or small groups of sentences, while others required readers to evaluate larger units, including multiple paragraphs or entire texts The highest level of engagement was observed in tasks that necessitated interaction with several different texts.
For this dimension of reading tasks, the following two broad categories were used after Weir and Urquhart (1998), and Hill and Parry (1992)
According to Weir et al (2009), reading activities can be categorized based on their focus, with some being more localized while others are more global For instance, scanning, which involves finding specific information in a text, is considered a localized reading activity.
„skimming‟ (ie obtaining an overview of a text) is necessarily a more „global‟ form of reading
Our second dimension – „type of engagement‟ – involved an adaptation of the Weir and Urquhart
In 1998, a schema was introduced that categorized reading strategies into "careful" and "expeditious" readings, focusing on the processes students may use However, our emphasis on academic tasks highlighted the importance of the specific outcomes required from reading texts Preliminary observations in IELTS and academic study tasks revealed that different types of reading were necessary for various assignments Some tasks required a basic understanding of the text's content, while others demanded a more personal engagement with the material.
This study explores the distinction between semantic and pragmatic meanings in linguistics Semantic meaning refers to the literal propositions within a text, while pragmatic meaning arises from the relationship between the text and its context (Yule, 1996) According to Yule, semantics focuses on the explicit meanings of sentences, whereas pragmatics delves into the subtler aspects such as intended meanings, assumptions, purposes, and the actions taken by individuals when communicating.
When engaging with a text, it is essential to differentiate between its semantic meaning, which pertains to what the text explicitly conveys, and its pragmatic meaning, which explores the implications and effects of the text's message This distinction enhances our understanding of reading acts and the multifaceted nature of textual interpretation.
To illustrate this distinction, Taylor (2009, p 66) cites the following short text sample from a French History textbook:
The winter of 1788-9 was a very harsh one in France, inflicting untold misery on the peasants The revolution broke out in July 1798
Taylor suggests that these two sentences can be interpreted in two ways: literally, as a series of propositions detailing events in late 18th century France, or through a more nuanced semantic perspective.
In academic studies, understanding events interpretatively, where the first event is seen as a cause for the second, is crucial Taylor (2009) emphasizes that while both pragmatic and interpretative readings are significant, the latter is frequently overlooked in discussions about the reading skills students require for their studies.
This basic distinction in the way one might engage with a text (or be required to engage) provided the second category of our framework as follows 2 :
The "literal" aspect of our binary pertains to the straightforward understanding of a text's propositional content, while "interpretative" engagement with texts can take various forms According to Alderson (2000, p 320), this includes identifying the purpose of a writing piece, recognizing the author's underlying assumptions, differentiating between fact and opinion, and understanding the intended audience and perspective.
Catherine Wallace (1999) emphasizes the importance of critical literacy by highlighting essential skills such as recognizing hidden messages in texts, understanding persuasive techniques that influence behavior and thought, and acknowledging that texts are crafted for various audiences Additionally, she points out that different audiences may interpret texts in diverse ways.
The current study refrains from creating a definitive list of interpretative modes or establishing any hierarchical relationships among them Instead, it adopts a broad distinction between "literal" and other interpretative approaches, focusing on the nuances within these categories.
This article explores the different interpretative forms of reading and evaluates whether the reading tasks assigned to students, particularly in the IELTS reading test and academic studies, demand a greater level of engagement from one form over the other.
The analytical framework comprises two dimensions: the level of engagement and the type of engagement, illustrated in the matrix in Figure 1 The level of engagement ranges from "local" to "global," indicating the extent of text interaction necessary for task completion Tasks on the far left require engagement at the "word" level, while those on the far right necessitate interaction with multiple texts.
The type of engagement dimension, which describes a continuum from more „literal‟ to more
„interpretative‟ engagement, refers to the way (or ways) a reader needs to engage with a text to
In the field of learning theory, a fundamental distinction is frequently made between different types of engagement with materials, such as surface versus deep learning (Marton & Saljo, 1976) and higher versus lower order skills (Bloom, 1956) Additionally, learners may exhibit reproductive versus analytical approaches (Ballard & Clanchy), highlighting the varying depths of understanding and skill application.
1991), critical and non-critical approaches to knowledge (Ennis, 1987) literal
The task response spectrum ranges from basic comprehension of textual material at the top to highly critical and personal engagement with texts at the bottom.
Figure 1: Analytical framework used in the study
Disciplines investigated
Data was collected from two distinct universities to assess reading requirements across various academic disciplines One university is a traditional Australian institution, while the other is a newer, vocationally-oriented university To ensure a comprehensive sampling, Becher’s (1989) matrix of hard-soft/pure-applied disciplines was employed, categorizing academic fields based on research methods and knowledge perspectives Although the selected disciplines align with Becher’s typology, it is important to note that the boundaries between these groups may not always be clearly defined.
Table 2: Disciplines investigated in study: Becher (1989) taxonomy
LEVEL OF ENGAGEMENT more more local global
The investigation focused on a selected subject from each of the twelve discipline areas, as detailed in Table 3 These subjects, all offered at the first-year undergraduate level, were chosen due to their significant enrollment of students from second language backgrounds While these subjects represent their respective disciplines, it is important to note that each subject only encompasses a fraction of the broader intellectual content and educational practices inherent to the entire discipline.
Physics Life sciences and environment
Biology Genetics and the Evolution of Life
Media Studies The Media in Australia
Computer Science Informatics – Practical Computing
Business Studies Deriving Business Value
Management Business in the Global Economy
Table 3: List of disciplines and subjects
Data and procedure
The study employed a qualitative approach, utilizing two primary research methods: task analysis of both IELTS and academic assignments, along with interviews conducted with academic staff This methodological combination aligns with Swales' (1998) concept of "textography," which is characterized as a blend of textual analysis and ethnographic observation.
A comprehensive corpus of IELTS reading test samples was compiled for this study, sourced from two primary materials: the official IELTS Practice Test (IELTS, 2007) and practice test resources published by Cambridge University Press The Cambridge materials, which include some retired official content, are believed to more accurately represent the actual nature of the official test compared to other commercial resources It is important to note that no live reading test materials were available for this research In total, 13 complete tests were analyzed, each encompassing a diverse range of task types.
Researchers analyzed reading tasks based on two dimensions of the study's analytical framework: the 'level' and 'type' of engagement Although interpretation is inherent in such analyses, objectivity was enhanced by having each researcher independently assess the tasks, followed by a consensual analysis achieved through moderation processes.
Lecturers from twelve selected disciplines were invited to contribute to the university component of the study by providing course reading and assessment materials, followed by interviews regarding these resources.
15 materials A provisional analysis was made of the assessment tasks drawing on the same analytical framework used in the IELTS analysis This analysis was also subject to processes of moderation
Following the task analysis, interviews were held with twelve staff members A schedule of questions, along with a sample of IELTS reading test materials representing a range of test tasks, was provided to the interviewees beforehand.
The interviews were structured in three key phases, focusing on general reading requirements for courses, specific assessment task reading requirements, and participants' perceptions of the alignment between academic reading expectations and the IELTS reading text.
The interviews utilized a semi-structured format based on the "discourse-based interview" method (Odell, Goswami & Herrington, 1983), focusing on discussions about specific text samples, including course materials and IELTS reading test items Each interview lasted approximately one hour, during which all conversations were audio-recorded and subsequently transcribed The key themes and insights from the informants' comments are detailed in Section 4.2.
The report features verbatim transcriptions of interviews, with minor edits made to enhance readability by removing extraneous elements such as false starts and fillers This approach, similar to Swales' (1998) study, aims to improve the spoken discourse's clarity while remaining true to the informants' original messages.
Findings
Academic reading tasks
The second part of the study examined the reading tasks required of undergraduate students across 12 different disciplines This investigation utilized two research methods: interviews with academic staff and an independent analysis of reading-based tasks assigned by these educators.
This article summarizes findings from interviews regarding the quantity and type of reading assigned in undergraduate courses, as well as how students are expected to interact with this material It also includes an analysis of academic tasks, utilizing the framework from IELTS task analysis, focusing on the two key dimensions of "level" and "type" of engagement with reading materials.
The importance of reading in university study
The interviews revealed that reading was an essential requirement across all subjects studied, with many informants emphasizing that the act of reading was fundamental to the educational processes involved.
38 their subject area Thus, the lecturer in Media Studies saw reading as providing the common thread for all the various activities on his course:
In Media Studies, reading is crucial as it forms the foundation of the entire course structure Weekly readings inform lectures and serve as the basis for discussions in tutorials Ultimately, this material will be revisited in various forms, assisting students in their essay and assignment writing.
For the Linguistics lecturer, the development of key skills in reading was one of the more important objectives on her course
In linguistics education, it's essential to foster critical thinking and active reading skills among students, moving beyond a traditional knowledge transmission model Encouraging students to engage critically with texts is a fundamental skill that enhances their learning experience and comprehension.
At the start of the semester, several informants emphasized the importance of encouraging students to commit to the required readings for their courses They noted that meaningful participation in academic programs—such as attending lectures, engaging in tutorials, and contributing to lab sessions—relied heavily on students arriving prepared with the relevant material A Communications lecturer highlighted a specific "firm instruction" in the course manual, reinforcing this expectation.
Effective communication is crucial in our course, and I emphasize to students the importance of completing the assigned readings before each lecture Lectures and workshops will build on the assumption that students are familiar with the material, and participation will require a solid understanding of the content.
While not prioritizing reading as much as others, some lecturers in technical fields recognize its significance in their courses For instance, the Architecture lecturer emphasized that cultivating strong reading habits is essential for students' professional development.
In the field of architecture, students must recognize that reading is essential for gaining critical knowledge in the discipline This understanding is vital not just for their academic success but also for their professional growth I emphasize to my students that cultivating strong reading habits will ultimately lead to their development as proficient professionals in architecture.
The overwhelming importance of reading in academic study was perhaps stated most emphatically by the informant from History:
Research shows that students who engage in extensive reading consistently perform better in their academic tasks compared to those who read less This trend appears to hold true across nearly all areas of academic work.
Many staff members observed a disconnect between their expectations for student reading and the actual reading behaviors and attitudes exhibited by students in their studies.
Quantity and type of reading prescribed on courses
There was a consensus among informants on the significance of reading, yet notable differences emerged concerning the volume and types of reading recommended for specific subjects These variations were primarily disciplinary, reflecting the distinction between hard and soft disciplines examined in the study.
Such differences were quite noticeable, for example, in the quantity of reading expected of students In the „softer‟ disciplines, informants spoke of the need for students to do
„substantial‟ reading on their courses, and generally to go beyond the set readings:
In Media Studies, students are required to follow a standard textbook and complete weekly readings from designated pages Additionally, they should explore other significant resources such as books, journal articles, and magazines To gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject, it is essential for students to develop a daily reading habit that includes newspapers and to stay updated on current media developments.
For the History lecturer, seeking out a range of sources and a variety of interpretations on a topic was an indispensable part of engaging with the discipline:
Understanding a subject thoroughly requires a solid foundation of knowledge, which is why we emphasize the importance of extensive reading to students Without adequate reading, students may struggle to answer the questions we present While one book may offer a reasonable perspective on a topic, it's crucial to explore multiple sources to effectively evaluate and comprehend the subject matter.
In the softer disciplines, instructors emphasize the importance of weekly reading assignments and time commitments for students For instance, a Linguistics lecturer recommends that students read the assigned textbook material and at least two relevant journal articles each week Similarly, a Communications lecturer advises her students to allocate a minimum of 3-4 hours weekly for reading in her subject.
Findings from interviews – Comments on IELTS reading tasks
In the final results section, we revisit the insights gathered from informants during the interviews, which were structured into three phases: general reading requirements for courses, specific assessment task reading requirements, and perceptions of the alignment between course reading demands and the IELTS reading test To enhance the discussion, informants reviewed sample IELTS reading tasks and shared their views on the similarities and differences between the reading requirements in both contexts They also evaluated the potential usefulness of these IELTS tasks in preparing for the reading challenges of their courses Overall, responses fell into three main categories, with many participants expressing a positive perspective on the relationship between reading requirements in the two domains.
60 ii) a more qualified view of the relationship iii) a critical view of the relationship
The study revealed a notable disciplinary bias in informants' responses, where individuals from technical fields tended to express a more favorable view of the relationship, while those from humanities disciplines often held a more critical perspective.
Lecturers from Computer Science, Engineering, Biology, Business Studies, and Communications, representing nearly half of the study's participants, expressed positive views on the relationship between the IELTS test and their course tasks They identified a clear connection between certain IELTS task types and the assignments given in their courses, as reflected in their feedback.
The skills tested in the IELTS exam closely resemble those expected of first-year biology students, emphasizing essential reading and comprehension abilities This alignment highlights the importance of these skills for student success in both the exam and their academic pursuits in biology.
Computer Science exam questions share similarities with those found on the IELTS, particularly in the multiple-choice format However, true or false questions differ Additionally, our exam includes a unique question where students must rearrange lines of code to construct a logical program, reflecting elements present in the IELTS materials.
Several informants in this group expressed surprise at what one described as the test‟s
The IELTS reading test presents higher reading demands than those typically encountered in specific subject areas However, it's important to note that comments regarding these challenges often fail to differentiate between the complexities of the test items and the reading passages themselves.
In the field of computer science, there is a growing expectation for students to engage less in reading However, administering a relevant test that challenges students at a higher level than the course content is beneficial This approach ensures that the assessment aligns well with the skills and knowledge necessary for success in the discipline.
The IELTS reading test serves as excellent preparation, particularly due to its challenging science-based articles Many find these texts complex, often requiring a second reading to fully comprehend and answer related questions effectively.
Informants in the positively-disposed group felt that the reading demands in both domains aligned well, and the perceived difficulty of the test reinforced their belief that IELTS would be a valuable preparation tool for tertiary study.
Engineering skills assessed in the IELTS are valuable in a broad context and serve as effective preparation for the demands of our course.
BIOLOGY: I think looking at [these samples], I would be happy if a student was coming to me with those skills
COMMUNICATIONS: I think [the IELTS reading test] would be good preparation actually … I think if the students scored well on this then they would probably be
A segment of informants expressed a generally positive outlook on the test and the sample materials presented during the interview; however, they also voiced some concerns regarding its overall effectiveness This group comprised a similar number of informants as the previous one, with five individuals sharing these sentiments.
12), and consisted of the lecturers from Physics, Architecture, Economics, History, and
Management The main reservation expressed was a sense of a limited degree of correspondence between the test and reading requirements in their particular disciplinary domain, as suggested in the following remarks:
ECONOMICS: I think [the IELTS material] is fine It's just comprehension really…
Economics employs a blend of mathematical methods, visual diagrams, and textual analysis to explore complex concepts This approach allows for an abstract yet insightful understanding of real-world phenomena.
The test emphasizes reading comprehension, which is essential for our courses However, it does not address the specific reading strategies required for our discipline, such as the ability to effectively analyze primary source materials.
The focus of the test on bridges is highly relevant to our region, making it an appropriate topic Additionally, the style of questioning aligns well with the necessary language proficiency level.
Understanding the nuances of our subject is essential for students, as it involves not only matching words but also reading between the lines This deeper comprehension is crucial for success in the course.
Summary and discussion of findings
Main findings
IELTS reading vs academic reading
The study developed an analytical framework to systematically compare reading requirements in IELTS and academic study, focusing on two key dimensions: the level of engagement with text, distinguishing between local and global interactions, and the type of engagement, differentiating between literal and interpretative readings The findings indicate some correspondence between the reading demands of both domains, while also highlighting significant differences.
The primary similarity in reading tasks lies in their requirement for local and literal engagement with the material This was evident in the IELTS corpus, where most tasks focused on basic comprehension of small textual units like sentences and paragraphs Similarly, a significant number of tasks in the academic corpus displayed this "local-literal" orientation, often designed as weekly exercises or exam questions aimed at helping students grasp specific discipline-based concepts.
The study highlighted both similarities and notable differences between the two domains, particularly due to the diverse range of reading tasks present in the academic corpus This divergence was especially evident in extended assignment tasks such as essays and reports, contrasting with the IELTS corpus, which predominantly featured a narrower scope of reading tasks.
The analysis identified 64 task types within the "local-literal" category, highlighting the academic corpus's inclusion of tasks across all four analytical areas Notably, some tasks appeared to diverge from the typical IELTS task profile, as they necessitated critical engagement with materials and required interaction with multiple sources and viewpoints.
The interview commentaries from staff revealed both similarities and differences in their perspectives Some informants noted a strong alignment between the reading expectations for their courses and the requirements of the IELTS test Conversely, others highlighted distinct differences between the two, emphasizing their unique challenges.
Disciplinary variation in reading requirements
The comparison between the IELTS reading test and academic study reveals both similarities and differences, largely influenced by the diverse types of reading required in various disciplines This variation is particularly evident in the distinction between technical disciplines, often referred to as "harder" fields, and other areas of study.
In technical disciplines such as Engineering, Architecture, Physics, and Biology, students engage in less reading, which is primarily focused on helping them assimilate foundational concepts essential to their field Interviews revealed that reading materials in these courses are often framed as critical ideas that students must understand to succeed in their studies.
In the more humanities disciplines, by contrast, reading was found to take on many different guises While students on these courses (including Media Studies, Linguistics, History,
Management students were expected to grasp fundamental concepts and perspectives within their field while engaging with various materials In certain contexts, their tasks involved comparing diverse ideas and viewpoints on specific issues, while in others, they were required to evaluate these concepts Additionally, students needed to synthesize a range of information to formulate their own viewpoints, highlighting the multifaceted nature of their learning process.
In technical disciplines, informants emphasized an "assimilationist" approach to reading, where students are encouraged to apply their unique perspectives to the material This method is encapsulated by the idea that students must "question everything" to fully engage with and understand the content.
The study's findings indicate that during the first year of undergraduate study, students encounter a diverse range of reading materials and approaches tailored to their specific courses This variability highlights the challenges of establishing a universal framework for academic reading that applies across all disciplines The report's concluding sections explore the implications of these observations.
Specific findings
The data revealed specific insights that highlight the differences observed between the two domains, offering a more detailed understanding of these distinctions.
In analyzing the IELTS and academic task corpora, it became evident that the types of entities students and test-takers needed to concentrate on in their reading varied significantly Specifically, IELTS test samples highlighted entities primarily categorized as "information," as illustrated by the sample rubrics.
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
Which paragraph contains the following information?
In academic tasks, students often encounter knowledge presented in diverse forms It was observed that opportunities for students to actively engage with this knowledge are relatively infrequent.
„information‟ per se; instead they needed to contend with a range of different entities Most prominent among these was a characterisation of knowledge as „concept‟ (or related entities –
In various academic tasks, particularly within the humanities, there is a notable focus on entities linked to specific scholars, such as "arguments," "viewpoints," "theses," and "perspectives." Additionally, other significant entity types include those related to empirical research outcomes, such as "studies" and "findings."
The differences in epistemic entities between academic tasks and IELTS highlight a constructivist perspective on knowledge In academic contexts, knowledge is often generated through the critical thinking and research efforts of individual scholars or the collective contributions of the disciplinary community (Myers, 1992) Conversely, IELTS emphasizes the importance of reading content, showcasing a distinct approach to knowledge acquisition.
„information‟ suggests instead a more positivist view of knowledge, where, authorship, as Hill and Parry (1992) suggest, “is essentially anonymous” (p 439)
Different conceptions of academic knowledge affect how students engage with it in various domains In many IELTS tasks, the primary goal is for students to demonstrate a fundamental understanding of the reading material In contrast, academic tasks require not only this basic comprehension but also the ability to interpret and work with the material As one informant noted, students should identify key points in their readings and reflect on them, relating their insights to their broader academic work.
In academic settings, two primary types of interpretative reading tasks are prevalent: application and evaluation Application tasks require students to demonstrate how concepts or ideas from their readings can be applied in their specific discipline, while evaluative tasks focus on making explicit assessments of the material.
66 these concepts (eg with respect to their validity, worth etc) Of these two interpretative modes, the application-related tasks were found to be the more common
Interpretations of concepts in academic disciplines are often specific to those fields, requiring students to engage with and interpret ideas in particular ways (McPeck, 1992) Scholars argue that discipline training involves learning how to apply and evaluate concepts within a field (Lave & Wenger, 1991) Bourdieu (1990) emphasizes that these practices are not solely cognitive; they become effective when integrated into habitual dispositions The discipline-specific nature of these interpretative reading strategies may explain their absence in the IELTS tasks analyzed in the study, highlighting the challenges of integrating such modes into any revised version of the test.
A key distinction between the IELTS tasks and academic assignments lies in the amount of reading required IELTS tasks primarily focus on a single reading passage, often emphasizing smaller components of the text In contrast, academic tasks, particularly in the humanities, necessitate engagement with multiple texts For instance, summary tasks demand that students synthesize information from various sources on a specific topic, while essay assignments require the exploration of diverse perspectives before students articulate their own viewpoints.
Academic tasks often emphasize a conception of knowledge that prioritizes debate and dialogue among scholars rather than providing definitive answers to issues Informants highlighted that engaging with multiple sources is essential for students to cultivate a critical perspective in their studies As one informant noted, students may believe they have found a "perfectly reasonable answer" to a question, but this belief is only valid if they have the chance to compare that answer with alternative viewpoints.
The contextual nature of reading
Reading in different contexts reveals significant differences, particularly in the IELTS samples, where questions often lack a clear intellectual purpose, making the required information seem arbitrary In contrast, university studies provide a defined context for reading, driven by the broader knowledge of a discipline and the specific demands of tasks and assignments within courses.
“serves to make it clear to students what [information] is important and what is not”
The literature highlights a significant disparity between reading in testing and academic contexts Alderson (2000), referencing Barton (1994), emphasizes that academic reading seldom occurs in isolation; rather, it is typically interconnected with other activities and disciplines.
A "literacy event," as defined by Barton and Hamilton (1998), refers to a sequence of observable activities that are facilitated by text This concept highlights the interconnectedness of various academic activities and emphasizes the role of written communication in educational settings.
Literacy events, such as TLU reading tasks, are interconnected processes that begin with a coursework reading assignment This initial task prompts note-taking, which then encourages additional reading and culminates in drafting a written paper The final step involves critically re-reading the draft to enhance its quality (Alderson, 2000, p 148).
Incorporating authentic academic study scenarios into the IELTS test presents a significant challenge, as highlighted by Weir et al (2009), who argue that achieving full contextual authenticity in language assessments is often unrealistic To address this, one informant from the study proposed designing tasks that are centered around specific study scenarios, aiming to connect the reading of test passages to real-world contexts for students.
Arguably one of the more significant literacy events in academic study is that which involves the integrating of one‟s reading on a topic into some related writing activity (Horowitz, 1986; Moore
Implications of findings for development of the reading test
Should the IELTS Reading Test be modified?
In relation to the first question, the general push in language assessment to maximise a test‟s
The concept of "authenticity" indicates that modifications to the IELTS reading test should be considered Bachman and Palmer (1996) describe "inauthenticity" as a weak connection between the target language use (TLU) task and the test task Although the task analysis findings do not indicate a significantly weak link between the two domains, there is potential for strengthening this connection This perspective is supported by feedback from academic informants in our study, who believe that the test's demands could be enhanced.
The growing impact of IELTS, particularly its influence on English for Academic Purposes programs, necessitates adjustments to align reading requirements with course expectations.
Implementing changes to the well-established IELTS test involves several important practical considerations A key issue is finding the right balance between test validity and reliability, ensuring that any modifications to the IELTS academic reading test align with the overall structure of the existing test battery This means maintaining the reading test as a distinct module without significant overlap with other components, such as writing, and ensuring it remains a clerically-markable section Additionally, accommodating the diverse versions of academic reading across various disciplines poses a challenge, highlighting the need for careful selection of reading tasks to ensure relevance across different fields of study.
When considering the objectives of an objective reading test, it's important to acknowledge its limitations in simulating real-world language use Taylor (2007) emphasizes that the IELTS test primarily assesses a student's readiness for university-level English studies, rather than their mastery of necessary skills She points out that many skills required for academic success will need to be developed during the course of study, particularly those specific to individual academic disciplines This perspective aligns with feedback from study participants, who indicated that the responsibility lies with academic staff to cultivate discipline-specific competencies within their courses.
How could the IELTS reading test be modified?
To enhance the academic reading test, it is beneficial to focus on incorporating tasks that emphasize global and interpretive aspects of analysis, as illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Suggested principle for modifications to reading test
This article presents sample tasks aimed at illustrating how under-represented areas of our matrix can be addressed in testing The samples are categorized into three extensions: Extension 1 focuses on Local/Interpretative aspects, Extension 2 emphasizes Global/Literal elements, and Extension 3 explores Global/Interpretative themes.
Several samples are provided for each extension; some additional samples are shown in Appendix
3 In the construction of these tasks, we have attempted to incorporate some of the specific differences noted between reading in the two domains (see section 5.2) with a focus on such dimensions as: authorial stance; specific academic entities (eg arguments); reading–writing connections; information literacy skills; genre readings of texts; text evaluation; and so on In some of these tasks, there has also been an effort to structure tasks around the idea of relating tasks to specific study scenarios (see section 5.2)
The sample tasks provided are exclusively in a multiple-choice format due to their versatility in facilitating global and interpretative engagement with the material However, this does not imply a recommendation for an increased use of multiple-choice items in the test As noted by Alderson (2000), multiple-choice tasks have inherent limitations, such as the possibility of candidates guessing the correct answers, which presents a significant challenge for the integrity of the assessment.
LEVEL OF ENGAGEMENT more more local global
71 designers to develop certain conventionalised techniques that are able to test some of the more
„interpretative‟ and more „global‟ dimensions of reading we have identified
In Passage A, the writer states that … PROPOSITION (Line B)
The writer's perspective on X can be interpreted in several ways: a) X is viewed positively and merits encouragement; b) X is seen negatively and should be discouraged; c) there is insufficient knowledge about X, warranting further investigation; or d) ample research has already been conducted regarding X.
Sample 1.1: Focus on inferential readings of sentences
In an essay referencing information from Paragraph B of Passage A, a reasonable interpretation of the writer's view can be articulated through various perspectives on Smith's (2000) argument Options include: a) Smith (2000) posits that X is a Y, suggesting a positive correlation; b) Smith (2000) contends that X is not a Y, indicating a distinction; c) Smith (2000) asserts that X is a Z, presenting an alternative classification; and d) Smith (2000) maintains that X is not a Z, emphasizing a divergence Each option reflects a different angle on Smith's interpretation, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the text.
Sample 1.2: Focus on reading-writing connections (scenario format)
In Passage A, the author asserts Proposition Y, supporting this claim with various pieces of evidence Key findings stem from a study she conducted, as well as research carried out by B Additionally, the author references collaborative findings from both her study and B’s, along with insights drawn from multiple studies conducted by B and C.
Sample 2.1: Focus on macro-content of text (Epistemic entities= claim/evidence)
When considering which paragraph from Reading Passage A would be most beneficial for writing an essay on topic X, it is essential to evaluate the relevance and depth of information provided in each section Paragraph 1 may introduce the main idea, while Paragraph 2 could offer supporting details Paragraph 3 might present critical analysis or examples, and Paragraph 4 could summarize key points Ultimately, the choice depends on the specific aspects of topic X that require elaboration.
Sample 2.2: Focus on use of sources – information literacy (scenario format)
Which of the following do you think best describes the main purpose of Reading
Passage A: a) to advise on the best ways to do X b) to criticise the current ways of doing X c) to provide background information on X d) to predict what will happen to X
Sample 3.1: Focus on overall rhetorical purpose of text
Passage A faces several criticisms, with the most pertinent being that the writer claims X is Y without providing supporting evidence Additionally, the writer expresses support for X while neglecting to address opposing viewpoints There are also inconsistencies in the writer's presentation of views on X, and while practical information about X is provided, its application remains unclear.
Sample 3.2: Focus on evaluation of text
The effectiveness of specific item techniques in reading assessments heavily relies on the availability of relevant reading passages that align with the technique's focus, such as the relationship between claims and evidence This study intentionally limited its scope to reading tasks, excluding the analysis of the texts themselves However, a potential shift towards more global or interpretative approaches could significantly impact the selection and design of reading passages in assessments Alderson (2000) emphasizes the critical connection between reading techniques and tasks, suggesting that any modifications to the test may necessitate thorough investigation into this relationship.
Further research
According to McNamara (1999), the validity of a reading proficiency test can be evaluated through three key areas: first, the task stimulus, which refers to the texts candidates interact with during the test; second, the task processes, which encompass the actual reader-text interactions that occur while completing the test; and third, the task demand, which involves the test items that dictate specific types of interactions between the reader and the text.
This framework serves as a valuable guide for exploring further studies related to the IELTS Academic Reading Test Notably, the selection of texts used in testing has been recognized as a key priority, warranting further investigation to enhance the test's effectiveness.
Recent research highlights the evolving nature of texts used in contemporary university studies, emphasizing the enduring significance of traditional materials like textbooks and journal articles However, the increasing influence of electronic media is also recognized To improve the validity of text components in assessments, it is essential to have a comprehensive and current understanding of these developments and their dynamic impact on academic literacy practices.
The way students read and engage with academic materials during specific tasks, referred to as "task processes," is a significant area of interest Although the current study provided estimates for task completion requirements, it could not capture the true "psychological reality" of students during these tasks Research in activity theory warns against assuming a direct link between assigned tasks and actual performance Weir et al (2009) offer valuable insights into student performance on reading tests and their relevance to real-life academic situations Further research is needed to compare these reading processes across specific test items and broader "literacy events" in academic contexts.
The current study on task demand was limited in scope, focusing on assessment requirements within a few subject areas To enhance the qualitative findings, larger-scale survey research is needed to explore reading requirements across diverse disciplines and institutions Gaining a comprehensive understanding of university reading will not only aid in test validation but also support the broader educational goal of effectively preparing students for the challenges they will encounter in their academic pursuits.
The researchers wish to thank the following for their assistance with this project: staff from the two site universities who participated in the research
Professor Tim McNamara, and Associate Professor Catherine Elder (University of
Melbourne) who provided advice as members of the project‟s reference group
The researchers also wish to thank IELTS Australia for their support of the project
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List of materials used in the IELTS Task Corpus
List of materials used in IELTS task corpus
1 Official IELTS practice materials, University of Cambridge; British Council; IDP, IELTS
2 Cambridge IELTS 2: Examination papers from University of Cambridge ESOL examinations, Cambridge University of Press, Cambridge, 2000 (4 x Academic Reading tests)
3 Cambridge IELTS 4: Examination papers from University of Cambridge ESOL examinations, Cambridge University of Press, Cambridge, 2005 (4 x Academic Reading tests)
4 Cambridge IELTS 6: Examination papers from University of Cambridge ESOL examinations, Cambridge University of Press, Cambridge, 2007 (4 x Academic Reading tests)
Schedule used in interviews with academic staff
Schedule used in interviews with academic staff
The following questions will form the basis of the interview
PART 1 Introduction (content, skills, general reading requirements)
1 How would you describe the main content of the course you teach on?
2 What do you see as the course‟s main objectives regarding the skills/attributes to be developed in students?
Students in the course are expected to engage in a significant amount of reading, with weekly requirements that vary in volume and complexity They must read a diverse range of texts, including academic articles, textbooks, and supplementary materials Alongside their readings, students are often required to complete specific activities that enhance comprehension and application of the material The primary purpose of these weekly readings is to deepen understanding of course concepts and foster critical thinking skills Over the years, the reading requirements have evolved to better align with educational goals and student needs Common challenges include managing time effectively and comprehending complex texts, particularly for students from second language backgrounds who may face additional linguistic hurdles.
PART 2 Reading and Assessment tasks
4 What are the main assessment tasks/activities you set for students on the subject?
To successfully complete the task, students need to understand the requirements clearly and follow the guidelines provided A significant amount of reading is necessary, typically involving multiple texts that can vary in type, such as academic articles, textbooks, or online resources The nature of the reading often requires basic comprehension as well as some level of interpretation to grasp the material fully In their written assignments, students must incorporate relevant information and evidence from their readings to support their arguments However, challenges may arise in effectively utilizing reading materials, particularly for students from second language backgrounds, who might struggle with language nuances and comprehension.
Students in their academic studies must develop specific reading skills that are crucial for success Among these skills, some may be particularly vital for your course, and it's worth considering which ones stand out Additionally, it’s important to identify any other essential reading skills that may not be included in the existing list.
have a basic comprehension of key information in a text
summarise the main ideas in a text in one‟s own words
understand an idea for the purpose of applying it to a particular situation
understand the purpose for why a text may have been written
critically evaluate the ideas in a text
identify a range of texts relevant to a topic
draw on ideas from a range of texts to support one‟s own argument
Questions in this section concern comparisons between the assignment tasks you provided and the attached sample IELTS reading tasks
The reading materials in the IELTS test primarily assess comprehension and analytical skills through a variety of texts, including academic articles and general interest pieces Similarly, the reading assignments in my course aim to enhance students' critical thinking and understanding of complex concepts However, while IELTS readings focus on test-specific strategies and time management, my course emphasizes deeper engagement with the material and encourages discussions that foster a more profound understanding Ultimately, both approaches aim to develop effective reading skills, but they differ in their objectives and methods of assessment.
Training for the IELTS reading test can significantly enhance a student's preparedness for the reading demands of their course The structured practice provided by IELTS tasks helps develop critical reading skills, such as comprehension and analysis, which are essential for academic success Additionally, familiarizing oneself with the test format can boost confidence and efficiency when tackling complex texts in a course setting Overall, targeted preparation for the IELTS reading test serves as a valuable foundation for meeting the rigorous reading requirements in higher education.
APPENDIX 2a) Sample IELTS reading test material distributed to interviewees for comment:
Official IELTS practice materials, University of Cambridge; British Council; IDP, IELTS
Additional sample items showing more global and/or interpretive engagements
Additional sample items showing more global and/or interpretative engagements
1.1 Focus on connotative meanings of words
In Passage A, the author characterizes X as a “Y” (Line B), indicating that the writer perceives X as either a positive, negative, expected, or unexpected development.
In Paragraph B, the author discusses X to illustrate that a) X is beneficial and warrants encouragement, b) X is detrimental and needs discouragement, c) further investigation into X is necessary due to insufficient knowledge, or d) adequate research has already been conducted on X.
2.1 Focus on macro-content of text (Epistemic entity = argument)
Which of the following statements best summarises the author‟s main argument in
The debate surrounding X encompasses various perspectives: some argue that X is beneficial and should be promoted, while others contend that it is detrimental and ought to be discouraged Additionally, there are viewpoints suggesting that X holds a neutral stance, being neither inherently good nor bad Furthermore, it is recognized that X may be advantageous for certain individuals, yet not for others, highlighting the complexity of its impact.
2.2 Focus on macro-content of text (Epistemic entity = study)
A study investigating X has yielded significant findings, with the main outcomes indicating that X is classified as a Y.
2.3 Focus on macro-content of text (Scenario format)
In Passage A, the writer addresses the primary challenges associated with X and evaluates various proposed solutions Among the four student summaries, option (a) most accurately captures the essence of the passage by highlighting both the difficulties and the solutions discussed Options (b) and (d) also touch on the challenges but either overstate the recommendations or omit them entirely Option (c) misrepresents the writer's stance by suggesting an impossibility in solving the problems Therefore, option (a) is the best reflection of the passage's content.
Reading Passage A focuses on X, while Reading Passage B discusses Y, highlighting the distinct themes and perspectives presented in each passage This comparison underscores the differing content and approaches taken by the authors, providing a clearer understanding of the subjects at hand.