The internationalisation of higher education – global student flows
The internationalisation of higher education continues to grow, fueled by technological advancements, the emergence of a knowledge-based economy, and recent influences from the credit crisis The significant increase in student migration draws parallels to the free movement of goods in global trade, although the economic advantages for developing countries remain debated (Adnett, 2010) According to OECD estimates, the number of students pursuing degree-level studies abroad surged from 0.8 million in 1975 to 3 million in 2007 (OECD, 2009) Additionally, Project Atlas reports that the number of internationally mobile students rose from 2 million in 2000 to 3.3 million in 2009.
In the 2008/09 academic year, the United States emerged as the leading destination for international students, hosting 20% of the total, followed by the United Kingdom at 13% France attracted 8% of international students, while Germany, Australia, and China each accounted for 7% Canada and Japan each welcomed 4% of international students, reflecting a consistent trend in global student mobility during that period.
In 2001, the absence of Canada and China as host nations for international students was notable During this period, the United States experienced a decline in its share of international students, dropping from 28% to 20%, while other countries maintained relatively stable percentages.
China is the leading donor country for international students, with nearly 420,000 studying abroad, including 127,628 in the US and 66,172 in Australia during the 2008/9 academic year Chinese students represent the largest foreign national group in major destination countries, except in France, where Moroccans are predominant The top destinations for Chinese students include the US, Australia, the UK, South Korea, Japan, Canada, Singapore, New Zealand, France, and Russia India, with a similar population and economic development stage, is the only other country with comparable student outflows Notably, six of China's ten most popular study destinations offer English-language instruction, including the top three.
Not all campuses in destination countries have the same percentage of Chinese students, as various factors influence campus and country selection While business administration is the most popular subject among international students, they often cluster in specific countries and institutions known for their strong programs Additionally, science and engineering fields attract 29% of all international students globally.
Current data lacks detailed geographic breakdowns and does not differentiate between international students in undergraduate, postgraduate taught, and postgraduate research programs (Motivans, 2009) However, Adnett (2010) notes that Australia, France, the US, and the UK have higher proportions of international students enrolled in advanced research programs, although specific figures for the countries sending these students remain unavailable.
The internationalisation of higher education – the UK perspective
The UK higher education sector has experienced significant growth in international student enrollment, surpassing the recent expansion of domestic student numbers This trend is largely driven by UK higher education institutions (HEIs) seeking financial stability amid limited home student fees As international fees remain unregulated, HEIs have increasingly relied on international students, particularly at the postgraduate level, to address financial gaps Since the 2002/3 academic year, fees for Master's programs have surged by 33% for UK and EU students and by 37-42% for non-EU students Additionally, targeted policy initiatives, including two Prime Ministerial Initiatives, have played a crucial role in boosting international student numbers in the UK.
According to the UK Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA), there has been a significant increase in student enrollment, particularly among international postgraduate students In the 1999/2000 academic year, there were 408,620 postgraduates in the UK, with 23% being non-UK students By 2008/09, this number rose to 536,810, with 25.91% from non-UK countries outside the EU While the proportion of non-UK EU students has remained stable since 2002/3, the overall growth in non-UK students has been both absolute and proportional over the past decade, although the rate of increase has leveled off in the last two years.
HESA statistics do not distinguish between research and taught postgraduate students; however, reports from the Higher Education Policy Institute in 2004 and 2010 reveal that the growth in student numbers is largely driven by international enrolment in taught Master's programs From 2002/03 to 2008/09, the postgraduate sector grew by 12%, with Master's programs increasing by 27% and doctoral programs by only 9% Notably, by 2010, 50% of UK Master's students and 44% of doctoral students were international The most popular subjects for taught Master's degrees are business and management, followed by social sciences and STEM fields, contrasting with the trends seen in UK doctoral programs.
UK students on computer science and engineering taught Masters programs where international students are now likely to be in the majority
Since the 2002/3 academic year, China has emerged as the leading donor nation for higher education students in the UK In the 2008/9 academic year, there were 50,460 Chinese students enrolled in UK higher education institutions, accounting for approximately 9% of all postgraduate students in the UK and 12% of the international Chinese student population worldwide.
During a recent period, approximately 50,000 international students enrolled in engineering courses in the UK, with around half that number studying business and management While specific breakdowns by degree level or subject are not available, it is reasonable to infer that Chinese students are significantly represented in STEM fields, reflecting China's commitment to industrial development and its growing manufacturing sector.
The rapid growth and increasing diversity of international students in the UK higher education sector raise concerns about the quality of UK Masters programs (HEPI, 2010) While the one-year UK Masters is appealing, it must maintain standards comparable to two-year programs in mainland Europe Statistics indicate that UK students may be outnumbered in some postgraduate courses, highlighting the importance of English language proficiency for non-native English-speaking (NNES) students, which impacts degree standards for all students Although specific data on NNES students in the UK is lacking, recent political discussions have underscored worries about declining degree standards and the English language skills of students (Select Committee, 2008) Ongoing debates regarding selection criteria, entrance requirements, and English language support for NNES students continue in both political and academic spheres.
Australia (Coley, 1999) If the UK is to maintain its position and status as a major provider of international higher education then evidence is necessary to convince students of whatever nationality,
UK or elsewhere, of the maintenance of degree standards through the rigorous selection of, and adequate support for, NNES students
Student entry requirements and selection in the UK
The first section of this literature review presents a brief summary of the research on student selection and entry requirements in the UK
UK higher education institutions (HEIs) commonly require English language proficiency tests, with the IELTS being the most prevalent However, the necessary scores vary significantly based on the institution, course demands, degree level, and available academic English support Research has struggled to establish a definitive link between IELTS scores and academic success, with typical entry requirements ranging from IELTS Band 6 to 6.5 Despite this, no clear threshold exists that predicts academic challenges for students Methodological concerns in studies assessing predictive validity suggest that linguistic ability is just one of many factors influencing academic progress.
Exploratory studies of decision-making practices among UK higher education institution admissions staff reveal a complex evaluation process for assessing applicants' potential for success in Master's programs Admissions tutors consider various factors, including motivation, academic qualifications, work experience, and adaptability to UK higher education culture As applicants often present diverse experiences and skills, interviews are utilized to validate application information and minimize reliance on single test scores, such as English test results, which play a contributory but not definitive role in selection decisions This nuanced perspective aligns with broader understandings of learning and academic achievement, although the limited scope of the research necessitates caution in drawing conclusions.
The inconclusive findings in educational outcomes research indicate a need for alternative conceptual and methodological approaches Emphasizing the learning process and recognizing English language development as separate from academic progress can provide valuable insights Key influences on language learning include motivation, subject discipline, program structure, ongoing language support, and socio-cultural context Furthermore, successful language acquisition relies on opportunities to apply and practice learned skills, which can occur both within the curriculum and in extra-curricular settings, contingent upon students' willingness to engage with educational and social demands.
Focused literature search
Language, socio-cultural and academic experience
Andrade (2006) defines adjustment for international students as the alignment between students and the academic environment, distinguishing it from academic achievement, which she associates with learning outcomes She identifies English language proficiency and cultural knowledge as crucial factors influencing adjustment International students often face higher levels of stress and loneliness, resulting in fewer friendships with local students, which can hinder their opportunities to practice listening and speaking skills Notably, Andrade found no definitive link between language proficiency and academic success.
The recurring image of the stressed and isolated international student is prevalent across various studies, transcending differences in host countries, degree types, and student nationalities.
A comprehensive analysis of loneliness among international students has been conducted across various countries, including Australia, the UK, and New Zealand Studies by Sawir et al (2008) and Brown (2008) highlight the challenges faced by international students, particularly those pursuing postgraduate and doctoral degrees Research indicates that social interactions are often limited to co-nationals, with a UKCOSA survey in 2004 revealing that only 15% of Chinese students reported having friends from the UK This underscores the need for better integration and support systems for international students to foster meaningful connections and alleviate feelings of isolation.
UK friends reported more overall satisfaction with their stay in the UK
Zhou and Todman (2009) advocate for a holistic, dynamic approach in their longitudinal mixed methods study of 257 Chinese postgraduates in the UK, focusing on the interplay of psychological, socio-cultural, and educational development Their research highlights the challenges faced by international students, including language barriers, academic reading difficulties, and social integration They found that while language issues remained a consistent challenge throughout the students' experience, academic and financial concerns diminished over time, and the importance of making friends increased The authors emphasize that educational and social circumstances are interconnected, suggesting that these experiences should not be viewed in isolation.
Brown and Holloway (2008), in an ethnographic study of international postgraduate students in the
UK, characterise adjustment as a dynamic and multifaceted process They share with Zhou and
According to Todman (2009), the adjustment process for international students is complex and cannot be easily generalized or predicted Similarly, Walsh (2010) highlights in her study of doctoral science students at a UK higher education institution that diverse 'microclimates' can exist within the same institution, particularly at disciplinary and departmental levels These variations are more pronounced in the independent learning environment of doctoral studies compared to the structured, cohort-based settings of taught Master’s programs.
While communicative issues are often highlighted, they are not the primary challenge for non-native English-speaking (NNES) students Language serves broader functions, including social competence, networking, and educational success Many scholars, including Walsh (2010), emphasize the interplay between culture and language, particularly the importance of pragmatic competence in social interactions Without this competence, students struggle to integrate into research cultures, leading to isolation Additionally, NNES students may lack awareness of academic writing conventions influenced by cultural norms, as noted by Andrade (2006) and Campbell and Li (2008).
The responsibility for promoting the socio-cultural well-being of international students is primarily viewed as lying with educational institutions and their staff, particularly research supervisors, as indicated in Walsh’s study (2010) This perspective is based on the institution's acceptance of students as qualified for their courses and their rights as consumers There is an inherent assumption that social well-being is linked to academic success Campbell and Li suggest that migrant students may face unresolved conflicts between differing cultural values, leading to a necessary acceptance of paradoxes In contrast, Bartram (2007) highlights the need for staff support in fostering student social networks, as voiced by students in a joint program between the UK and the Netherlands However, tutors express concerns about fostering dependency due to managerial influences in higher education, creating a tension between meeting consumer needs and promoting independent learning Notably, the issue of language difficulties is overlooked in this discussion.
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) face significant challenges due to the unpredictable national compositions of postgraduate cohorts resulting from internationalisation.
UK students may be in the minority, facing significant security challenges that many host countries are familiar with (Sawir et al, 2008) Increasing support for international students poses a financial burden that UK higher education institutions (HEIs) may struggle to manage amid ongoing public expenditure cuts Furthermore, the capacity of HEIs to effectively address the social well-being of international students is questionable, as literature suggests a degree of ambivalence from UK peers towards non-native English speaking (NNES) students (Henderson, 2009; Harrison and Peacock, 2011).
The Eastern Asian student abroad
Research on East and South-east Asian students highlights significant challenges faced by this demographic in educational settings across New Zealand, Australia, and the UK In New Zealand, where over 85% of international students originate from Asia, studies underscore the need for quality educational provisions Zhang and Brunton (2007) found that language barriers significantly hindered the academic goals of 140 Chinese students in Auckland, correlating with their limited social interactions with local peers Similarly, Tan and Simpson (2008) discovered that 160 Chinese students prioritized their overall experience over academic success, with campus security being a critical concern Furthermore, Campbell and Li (2008) reported that 22 Asian business undergraduates identified language proficiency and a lack of understanding of academic practices as major obstacles, alongside feelings of isolation from host nationals.
Chalmers and Volet (1997) challenge the stereotype of South-east Asian students as passive learners with limited critical thinking, suggesting that their quietness in class is linked to learning in a second language and their tendency to form study groups with international peers In contrast, Zhang and Mi's (2010) study of Chinese students in Australia reveals that while reading skills develop easily, writing remains a challenge into their third year, although listening and speaking difficulties are largely resolved by the end of the second year This discrepancy is attributed to the emphasis on reading in mainland Chinese English education While these studies provide a more positive perspective on South-east Asian students abroad, the alignment with existing stereotypes remains uncertain Additionally, the UKCOSA survey indicates that Chinese students in the UK integrate socially less than their peers from other countries, though this difference is minimal.
The UK study by Zhou and Todman (2009) explores the differing experiences of two groups of Chinese postgraduate students studying in the UK One group consisted of 45 students from two Chinese universities who traveled together to study IT/software engineering or English for professional development, while the other group included 194 students from various universities who came individually to pursue diverse disciplines The grouped students exhibited greater initial concerns regarding local accents, food, travel, and accommodation, suggesting a reliance on their peers for support, whereas the individual students faced challenges requiring more personal initiative Notably, the grouped students showed a significant improvement in their attitudes towards academic reading and understanding lectures upon arriving in the UK, in contrast to the individual students, whose concerns increased, highlighting the impact of social dynamics on their academic experiences.
This study highlights the significant impact that belonging to an accessible co-national group has on international students' academic, linguistic, and socio-cultural adjustment While it relies on self-reports from students, similar to other research, it lacks objective assessments of English language proficiency among comparable student groups over time In contrast, existing studies that evaluate English language progress utilize objective measures but often overlook students' personal attitudes and perceptions regarding their language development Thus, there is a clear need for research that correlates students' attitudes and judgments with assessed language outcomes over time.
Research highlights that English language proficiency is a significant challenge for non-native English-speaking (NNES) international students, as inadequate language skills hinder academic success and socio-cultural integration This limitation not only increases the effort required to meet academic goals but also stifles language development Interestingly, progress in linguistic, academic, and socio-cultural areas is not necessarily linear, and improvements in English skills do not occur uniformly This variation can be attributed to different research methodologies, with survey studies capturing broad student attitudes, while qualitative research delves into individual experiences Additionally, contextual factors, such as the time constraints of a one-year UK Master's program compared to a three-year undergraduate course, and cohort effects identified in Zhou and Todman's research (2009), may further influence these outcomes.
Despite the assumption that advancements in one area can benefit another, there is a lack of substantial evidence to support this notion Limited research has investigated the interactions between curricular and extra-curricular language demands, usage, and progress, with only a few studies assessing students' language skills Consequently, there is a need for case study research that examines the experiences of non-native English speaking (NNES) students throughout their degree programs, focusing on key elements of academic and socio-cultural contexts alongside language testing.
The institutional setting for the study is Cranfield University in Bedfordshire, a wholly postgraduate
Cranfield University stands out in the UK for its strengths in engineering and aerospace, emphasizing applied knowledge and strong connections with industry leaders like Airbus, Boeing, and Rolls Royce Unlike traditional universities, Cranfield is organized into four schools: Management, Applied Sciences, Engineering, and Health, fostering a multidisciplinary approach The university boasts a high employability rate, with 93% of graduates securing relevant work or research within six months of graduation Its unique rural campus, situated on a former airbase, encourages full-time students to be self-reliant for social and extracurricular activities while maintaining robust ties to the aerospace sector.
Cranfield University is a specialized higher education institution that differs from typical urban UK universities In the 2009/10 academic year, it had approximately 2,700 registered postgraduate master's students and 700 doctoral students, with around 1,600 studying on the Cranfield campus The university exhibits a gender bias among its staff and students, particularly in its specialized disciplines, as evidenced by the fact that 31% of taught postgraduate students were enrolled in the School of Management during the 2008/09 academic year.
Engineering continues to attract a significant number of overseas students, with recent statistics indicating stable proportions This trend suggests that the appeal of engineering programs remains strong, reflecting a consistent interest among international students in pursuing education in this field.
In recent years, the UK has seen a significant increase in its international student population, with Cranfield University being recognized for its diverse community In 2008, it was ranked second globally for its international student body by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings During the 2009/10 academic year, the campus hosted students from over 105 nationalities, comprising 45% UK students, 20% from the non-UK EU, and 35% from other countries Notably, Cranfield has a lower percentage of UK students and a higher proportion of non-UK EU students compared to sector averages However, these statistics do not fully reflect the rich national diversity present within various Master's programs at the institution.
The School of Engineering (SOE) offers approximately 20 Master's programs annually, with some programs featuring multiple specializations, such as the Master of Science in Thermal Power, which includes options in aerospace propulsion, gas turbine technology, power propulsion and the environment, and rotating machinery engineering and management While most programs are taught courses, there are a few Master's by research programs, including the Master's by Research in Aerospace Vehicle Design (AVD), where students undertake a one-year research project.
Cranfield's one-year taught Master's programs feature a consistent modular design across various subjects, with modules lasting from one to four weeks The curriculum typically includes lectures and practicals in the first term, followed by a group project in the second term, and an individual research project and thesis in the final term Assessments occur after each module, with exams scheduled in January and April, while students enjoy brief breaks during Christmas and Easter, dedicating the summer to research The group project is highly valued for its practical application in industry, even in the MSc by Research in Aerospace Vehicle Design Class sizes range from 10 to 80 students, contributing to Cranfield's top ranking in the UK and 11th globally for staff-student ratio, according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings in 2007.
For the past three years, the Aviation Industries of China (AVIC) has sponsored approximately
Each year, 60 students from across China enroll in two Master's programs at Cranfield University’s School of Engineering (SOE), with half pursuing the taught MSc in Thermal Power and the other half the MSc by Research in Aerospace Vehicle Design The programs differ in their start dates; while most MSc courses begin in October, AVIC students arrive in February for a three-week English language course before starting their programs in March Notably, the student composition varies, as the AVD cohort was entirely AVIC students in 2010, whereas the Thermal Power cohort included 15 international students Both programs lack UK students, aligning with the HEPI report on UK postgraduate education Upon completion, AVIC students return to their roles at AVIC in China.
This study investigates the socio-cultural and academic English language challenges faced by Chinese postgraduate students enrolled in two Master's engineering programs: the taught MSc in Thermal Power and the MSc by Research in Aerospace Vehicle Design (AVD) It analyzes their responses to these demands and tracks their progress in English language proficiency throughout the course duration All participants are sponsored by the Aviation Industries of China (AVIC).
The subsidiary research objectives are as follows
1 To identify, and compare, the English language demands of different postgraduate engineering curricula (MSc by Research and taught MSc) based in the same UK HEI
2 To identify the students’ perceptions of, and their responses to, these educational demands
3 To evaluate the linguistic progress of the NNES students for the duration of the study
4 To relate study hours and workload to the linguistic progress of the NNES students for the duration of the study (10 months)
5 To identify the socio-cultural opportunities, facilitators and barriers to NNES students’
6 In the light of above, to evaluate the admissions requirements for English language test scores and the need for English language provision both pre-sessional and in-sessional
Research design
A case study research approach has been selected as the most appropriate research design (Yin, 2003; Maxwell, 2004) for three reasons:
! respect for significant features of the academic and socio-cultural contexts which require recording and relating to the study findings
! the exploratory examination of contemporary and, potentially, unpredictable phenomena
! an inductive rather than a deterministic, approach towards research design which allows emerging findings to be incorporated into subsequent lines of enquiry and data collection
This study focuses on the English language progress of Chinese postgraduate engineering students in a UK higher education institution To gather comprehensive evidence of their language development, a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods has been employed, acknowledging the diverse influences on learning The intentional use of multiple data sources aims to enhance the reliability of the study's conclusions through triangulation The research inquiry is structured around a series of interconnected studies, each aligned with the study's subsidiary objectives, which will be elaborated upon in subsequent sections of the report.
Methods of data collection
Research objective 1: Academic English language demands
The primary data sources for this study include institutional and curriculum documents associated with the MSc in Thermal Power and the MSc by Research in AVD, which were analyzed to identify and compare the linguistic requirements of each program Additional insights were gathered through student interviews and direct observations of academic sessions.
Research objective 2: Students’ perceptions of English language demands
The study explored students' perceptions of the linguistic demands associated with two educational programs, primarily through data gathered from student interviews, supplemented by entries from student diaries and field notes from direct observations of group design project sessions.
IELTS and ‘in house’ testing
Table 1: Research objectives and related data collection methods
Research objective 3: Evaluation of students’ progress in English language
To assess students' English language progress, three key data sources were employed: standardized measures of proficiency encompassing the four language skills, students' self-reported insights gathered through interviews, and evaluations from thesis supervisors obtained via a questionnaire administered towards the program's conclusion.
Research objective 4: Relationship between students’ work effort and progress
An innovative electronic student diary was created to track the time students dedicate to academic tasks involving the English language, as well as their extracurricular English activities This diary originally encompassed the four essential language skills.
Research objective 5: Socio-cultural facilitators and barriers
Data from student interviews, diaries and direct observations were used to address this objective.
Research objective 6: Admissions requirements and in-sessional English
All data sources contribute to this objective and to the overall aim of the research.
Ethical issues and consent
The research project's nature and purpose were previously discussed with the course directors, who approved the original proposal Additionally, the directors of group design projects were approached in person during teaching sessions, where they were provided with a summary of the research objectives and asked for permission to observe student presentations All requests for observation were granted.
In early April, an introductory email was sent to all AVIC students outlining the research project and its objectives, which included conducting interviews and observing teaching sessions while ensuring participant confidentiality The communication clarified that the research would not assess English language proficiency or impact course evaluations Upon selection for interviews, students received direct confirmation emails to secure their consent Commitment to maintaining confidentiality for both staff and students will be upheld in all future reports, presentations, or publications.
The individual studies based upon the different data collection methods are described in the following Sections 6 to 11
Method
The review of course documents aimed to identify and compare the English language requirements of research and taught engineering MSc programs Additionally, interview and observational data support this objective, as detailed in Sections 7 and 9 It was expected that the course documents would offer an institutional perspective and organizational framework for both programs, which would be further explored through subsequent datasets.
At the beginning of the program, researchers met with Chinese-speaking course administrators experienced with previous AVIC cohorts to discuss the research project and secure consent for data collection This constructive meeting provided valuable insights into AVIC, the sponsoring company, and the collaboration's background Consequently, the researchers were invited to the formal AVIC Program Opening Ceremony at Cranfield, where representatives from AVIC and the Chinese Embassy launched the third student cohort of the AVIC–Cranfield initiative, highlighted by speeches and photography The administrators became crucial to the project, offering essential documents, information on scheduling, and guidance on interviewing students.
In examining the documents for the two Masters programs, the MSc by Research AVD (MScR) and the taught MSc in Thermal Power (MScT), a variety of curricular documents were reviewed
The documentation encompassed course manuals, outline plans, timetables, student demographics, and photos This was enhanced by comprehensive details on the Group Design Project (GDP) integral to both courses, outlining objectives, tasks, group member lists, and formal session schedules For the taught MSc program, an introductory PowerPoint presentation was also included Additional insights into the implementation of the GDPs are available in Section 9, which covers direct observations of teaching sessions.
Findings
The preliminary review of the two educational programs reveals distinct student experiences shaped by varying English language demands Both programs ran concurrently from March 2010 to February 2011, diverging from the typical academic calendar at the higher education institution (HEI) When AVIC students arrived, full-time Masters students were already six months into their studies, preparing for examinations Both groups engaged in a group design project (GDP) from late March to the end of August, with similar delivery methods Each program culminates in the writing of a research thesis between October 2010 and January 2011, where individual contributions from the GDP may evolve into the thesis topic The AVIC cohort consists of 29 students in research and 28 in the MScT program.
The MScT program features a rigorous schedule, with lectures running from 9am to 5pm, five days a week, leaving little room for additional commitments like English language classes Students are required to complete monthly assignments and take exams in July and September as part of their summative assessments The cohort includes 15 international students, with a few native English speakers attending the GDP voluntarily Students work in mixed nationality task groups to design various engine types, although the GDP itself is not summatively assessed; however, a collaborative GDP Report is submitted to AVIC for review After the GDP, all students focus on individual research projects, which share similarities in organization, delivery, and assessment with both taught and research MSc programs.
The early timetables for MScR students are largely unstructured, featuring only occasional short courses, with no assessments or examinations until the GDP report is due in August This program focuses on aerospace vehicle design, requiring 29 AVIC students to collaboratively design a single aircraft, divided into sub-groups specializing in structures and aerodynamics, systems, and avionics design Each cohort builds on the previous group's work, fostering a historical continuity in the project Although the cohort consists entirely of Chinese-speaking students, staff encourage interaction with the 2009/10 MSc in Aerospace Vehicle Design students, particularly on shared topics, as that program also includes a GDP, completed by June 2010, with a larger, multinational student body.
The two groups of students in the first half of their Master's programs exhibit distinct differences in English language usage and demands, both in terms of quantity and specific language skills.
MScT students have numerous opportunities to practice English listening skills through an intensive lecture schedule, alongside initial chances to write assignments, though the extent varies by assignment type Both MScT and GDP students face challenges in speaking English during group presentations, with MScT students likely experiencing greater demands due to diverse nationalities in task groups The reading requirements for MScT students are unpredictable; they have access to lecture materials and references but limited time for reading Additionally, the MScT lecture program may restrict opportunities for English listening and speaking in extracurricular settings, while research students benefit from a lighter schedule, allowing for more academic reading and social language practice However, the demands for English listening and speaking in the research program appear lower than those for taught MScT students As all students must complete a written research thesis, the challenges of writing academic English are similar for all AVIC students in the program's latter half, indicating that the research course offers fewer opportunities for English language practice in its initial phase.
7 IELTS AND TESTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Method
Reading
Reading was assessed using the pre- and post-tests from the Penguin Reader, Level 6 (Penguin
The Penguin tests, utilized at the Cranfield English Language Centre, offer a cost-effective and reliable assessment of language proficiency in reading, grammar, and vocabulary These tests allow for a correlation between Penguin scores and IELTS scores, with a score above 18 on the Level 6 tests indicating placement in the Penguin 6 reading category, suitable for students with an IELTS score of 6.5/7 The Penguin Reader Level test 6A served as a pre-test one month after students' arrival in the UK for their Master's programs, while the post-test, Penguin Reader Level test 6B, was administered seven months later Each test comprised 30 multiple-choice questions at the same level, with participation from seven MScT and ten MScR students.
Writing
An initial evaluation of students' GDP report introductions using the CARS model revealed challenges due to their brevity, with many introductions consisting of only two to three sentences Additionally, the group project format led to identical submissions among students To address this, student writing was assessed through samples from academic writing classes that emphasized structure, accuracy, and components of an MSc thesis Topics included food culture, space research, alternative energy sources, education, and global warming, with options for students to write on engineering-related subjects Writing tasks were assigned both in class and as homework, and assessments were based on multiple scripts, as single, brief pieces were insufficient for a comprehensive evaluation.
In November 2010, writing samples from students were analyzed over a two-week period, focusing on ten students from each group selected based on their attendance, which was often inconsistent due to non-compulsory classes Only ten students attended more than three sessions, prompting an examination of their scripts for coherence, cohesion, academic vocabulary, and grammatical accuracy—key areas identified by lecturers in the School of Engineering as challenging for non-native English speaking (NNES) students The analysis was conducted by raters with IELTS examining experience, utilizing the IELTS Task 2 band descriptors for evaluation.
In the IELTS 2006 assessment, students engaged in tasks designed to evaluate their academic writing skills, focusing on key elements such as definitions, descriptions, comparisons, contrasts, paraphrasing, and summarizing Each writing task required students to produce approximately 200–300 words Typically, students completed two handwritten scripts during class and a third script using word processing outside of class.
Speaking
The assessment of students' speaking abilities utilized interview sound files, with twelve students interviewed from April to early October 2010, including five who were interviewed a second time This article focuses on the data from those students who were assessed on their grammar's range and accuracy, vocabulary's range and appropriateness, pronunciation's intonation and stress, and overall fluency, which encompassed their responsiveness, coherence, and hesitation The evaluation employed a scale from 1 (poor) to 5 (very good).
Listening
Due to a technical issue that compromised sound quality during a commercially available practice IELTS Listening Test, the results have been excluded from the final report.
Findings
Reading test
In the reading test, a significant majority of students (12 out of 17) from both groups improved their scores in the post-test, with all but one student meeting or exceeding the target score of 18, which is aligned with an IELTS score of 6.5/7 as recommended by Penguin Among the 17 students who participated in both assessments, three students recorded lower scores in the post-test, while two students maintained their previous results.
Student code IELTS Reading IELTS Pre-test Post-test Writing IELTS Writing assessment
Reading IELTS = Reading sub-scores; Writing IELTS = Writing sub-scores
Pre-test = Penguin Reader Level test 6A; Post-test = Penguin Reader Level test 6B
Writing assessments in IELTS equivalents
Table 4: The Reading and Writing assessments of the MScR students
Writing assessment
An analysis of the students' scripts revealed notable progress in their IELTS Writing sub-scores upon entering Cranfield, with most students achieving an increase of 0.5 on the IELTS Writing band scale Additionally, the overall gains observed were minimal between research and taught students.
Analytical summaries of the key writing criteria: coherence and cohesion, academic vocabulary and grammatical accuracy are described below
Students often displayed illogical paragraphing, likely influenced by varying cultural writing norms in Chinese, leading to multiple topics being addressed within single paragraphs However, coherence was enhanced in some instances through the effective use of cohesive markers Overall, students typically achieved scores around Band 5.5 to 6.
Most handwritten texts contained noticeable spelling errors, particularly in scripts that utilized more technical vocabulary, although these rarely hindered comprehension In contrast, word-processed documents exhibited fewer spelling mistakes, likely due to the use of spell-checking tools Overall, students demonstrated an adequate range of vocabulary, with the majority achieving a Band 6/7 for lexical resource.
Most students demonstrated a balanced combination of simple and complex sentence structures, earning them a Band 6 rating However, one or two students exhibited limited control over their sentence structures, resulting in a Band 5 classification.
Student code IELTS Reading IELTS Pre-test Post-test Writing IELTS Writing assessment
Reading IELTS = Reading sub-scores; Writing IELTS = Writing sub-scores
Pre-test = Penguin Reader Level test 6A; Post-test = Penguin Reader Level test 6B
Writing assessments in IELTS equivalents
Table 5: The Reading and Writing assessments of the MScT students
Speaking
Table 6 presents the assessment results of sound files from students interviewed twice While students perceived minimal improvement in their speaking skills, all five participants showed some progress Three students improved by one point in one area, while two students, R13 and R20, achieved similar gains in two areas Notably, no students enhanced their vocabulary, and only one student improved in pronunciation The primary areas of advancement were fluency and grammar, with three students demonstrating improvements It is important to note that the sample is biased towards MScR students.
Student code Interview date Grammar score
Table 6: Analysis of students’ speaking abilities based on interview sound files
Recent assessments of AVIC students' skills after five to six months in the Master's programs revealed generally positive outcomes, with most students demonstrating a 0.5 increase in their IELTS Reading and Writing sub-scores Additionally, a smaller sample of five students showed improvements in their speaking abilities While these results indicate progress in the English language proficiency of AVIC students, it is important to exercise caution due to the limited sample size, which may have included more motivated individuals in the reading and writing assessments.
However, the evidence from other sources supports the increases in students’ skills (see Sections 8.2.2.2 and 9.2.2)
Method
Sampling
Initially, 26 AVIC students were selected for interviews, representing a diverse mix of genders, programs, and English language abilities based on IELTS scores However, after two months, scheduling interviews with MScT students became challenging due to their busy lecture schedules, prompting a shift in strategy Stricter sampling criteria were implemented, focusing on students at risk of language difficulties, specifically those enrolled in an English language Presentation Skills course To facilitate interviews, arrangements were made to conduct them immediately after the weekly classes Chris Binch and Gaynor Lloyd-Jones conducted interviews from April 14 to October 6, 2010, and as data collection progressed without new issues emerging, the criteria were expanded to include two MScT students whose presentation skills did not align with their IELTS scores Detailed information about the interviews and participants is provided in Table 7.
Interview schedule
An interview schedule was developed to investigate students' experiences with learning and using English in China, focusing on the challenges they face and the opportunities available in both academic and extracurricular contexts The schedule included questions about students' living situations and interactions with English-speaking peers to better understand their social environments Later interviews assessed whether students felt their English proficiency had improved since arriving in the UK, with prompts for specific examples of their abilities To ensure clarity, the language used was straightforward, avoiding lengthy questions Additionally, due to challenges with the diary study implementation, later interviews incorporated inquiries about the time spent using English in various settings.
Pilot interview
A student from the taught course responded enthusiastically to an introductory email and agreed to an interview, which took place on April 14, 2010 The audio-recorded interview lasted 30 minutes, aligning with the initial time estimate While the schedule effectively facilitated the gathering of relevant data, the first ice-breaker question about the student's course preference proved problematic, as it incorrectly assumed students had the choice, when in reality, the decision was made by their employer, AVIC.
Students were approached individually and invited for interview at a mutually convenient time
All students accepted the invitation to participate in the study, except for one research student who did not respond to two email requests Interviews were primarily audio-recorded and transcribed, with the exception of one instance where recording equipment malfunctioned, necessitating the use of notes taken during and after that interview Sound files were successfully saved for a total of 12 students.
An analytic guide was developed to help researchers analyze data consistently, featuring a framework of questions aligned with the interview schedule and research objectives The analysis focused on identifying commonalities and differences among interviewees, particularly comparing students from two programs and observing changes over time The textual analysis was primarily conducted by GLJ, while CB handled the sound data analysis.
Revision to research plan
Following feedback on the Interim Research Report submitted in July 2010, the original plan was revised to better monitor individual students' perceptions of their progress Rather than expanding the sample size for one-time interviews, 10 students previously interviewed between April and June 2010 were selected for a follow-up interview in September.
October (see Table 7) Five students each from the two programs were interviewed between
Between 20 October 2010 and 1 November 2010, a revised interview schedule was created for follow-up interviews that emphasized perceived enhancements in English language skills and their application both within the program and in extracurricular activities Additionally, students were encouraged to share suggestions on how future participants in the course could further improve their English proficiency.
T12 6 5 Yes 14.4.10 1.11.10 GLJ 1 st and 2 nd
R11 6 6 No 21.4.10 21.10.10 GLJ 1 st and 2 nd
R13 6 5 Yes 26.4.10 21.10.10 GLJ 1 st and 2 nd
R5 6.5 6 No 5.5.10 21.10.10 GLJ 1 st and 2 nd
R20 6 5 Yes 11.5.10 21.10.10 GLJ 1 st and 2 nd
Student codes: T = Taught program student, R = Research program student
GLJ – Gaynor Lloyd-Jones, CB – Chris Binch
Table 7: Details of student interviews and students’ IELTS scores
The interview process lasted 15 minutes, with all sessions audio-recorded and transcribed as previously done There was a gap of five to six months between the first and second interviews, during which only one student, T26, opted out due to time constraints related to her research thesis All interviews were conducted by GLJ, and the audio files were preserved for future reference.
Findings
Studying and using English in China
In China, English language study typically begins between the ages of 10 and 14 and continues through university, with instruction primarily in Chinese The focus is on reading, vocabulary, and limited writing, while listening practice often involves audio recordings, though opportunities for spoken practice are scarce This approach persists at the university level, where graduation depends on passing the College English Test (CET) Levels 4 and 6, although the spoken component is not mandatory Many students express dissatisfaction with these teaching methods, viewing them as overly focused on assessments and neglectful of speaking skills.
Many students rely heavily on textbooks and rote memorization, focusing primarily on reading and vocabulary acquisition without engaging in meaningful conversation This method limits their ability to communicate effectively in English, a challenge faced by many Chinese learners While they excel in reading and possess a vast vocabulary, their speaking skills often lag behind.
To be eligible for MSc study, students must achieve a minimum overall IELTS score of Band 6 Seven participants indicated that they completed a full-time, three-month English language course, funded by AVIC, prior to taking the IELTS Test The course was primarily focused on preparing students to successfully pass the test.
Many universities host informal "English corners" that allow students to enhance their listening and speaking skills in a supportive environment These sessions, led by English speakers, provide a designated time and place for practice Urban residents often have more chances to engage with English through interactions with foreigners compared to those in rural areas, where such opportunities are scarce Additionally, some interviewees reported using resources like BBC radio, Voice of America, and English-language movies online to improve their listening and pronunciation, although access to these resources varied among participants.
English language opportunities for students in China are largely limited to their work environments, with experiences varying significantly among individuals One interviewee noted that she had not spoken English for seven years prior to her arrival in the UK Nevertheless, there is a strong recognition of the importance of English proficiency for both national development and personal career advancement in China.
Effective communication is crucial for academic success Although opportunities to practice English were previously limited, globalization has made the world more interconnected Our company now offers numerous chances to collaborate with international partners, highlighting the growing importance of mastering spoken English.
“Yeah, I'm a senior designer in China because our company want want to train all of these guys, the engineers, in their thinking in the way of western countries.”
Most interviewees engage with English at work, primarily reading technological reports and manuals, with occasional academic papers However, there is minimal requirement for spoken English, as non-verbal communication suffices in their roles.
Chinese-speaking visitors often rely on translators for communication One student, who achieved a 6.5 in the IELTS Speaking test, reported using English weekly during conference calls and occasionally presenting to clients, making him an exception among his peers Opportunities for writing in English were limited; however, six students had experience writing abstracts or papers, with three engaged in translating documents Additionally, two students utilized English for written communication with clients and suppliers through emails and letters Despite a clear link between language proficiency and specific job roles, there was no apparent reason for the varying frequency of English use among the interviewees.
Interviewees believed that their English language studies in China prepared them to read effectively in their engineering fields; however, they felt less confident in other skills, especially speaking They expressed a strong desire to enhance their language abilities for career growth, yet many felt that opportunities to use English would diminish upon their return to China.
Using English in academic contexts
The data revealed distinct English language demands and usage among MScR and MScT students until their examinations in late September During the first six months, the primary opportunities for research students to engage in English listening and speaking occurred during the group design project (GDP), which included formal presentations held weekly from April to August, totaling 23 meetings attended by all students and several tutors Students expressed positive feedback regarding the GDP, appreciating the chance to practice their English skills They often memorized their presentations and rehearsed them verbatim before the meetings Generally, students were able to respond to questions following their presentations, given they possessed the necessary academic knowledge.
Using English for presentations is crucial in our group design project, where we present weekly This practice not only enhances our English skills but also allows us to effectively communicate our academic ideas, making it a valuable experience.
Research students occasionally attended short lecture courses in English, but these were infrequent Meetings with staff tutors varied in frequency, addressing issues related to the GDP While there were reading opportunities to gain knowledge for the GDP, students specializing in software design may have had limited access to reading materials Aside from preparing slides for GDP presentations, formal writing demands were minimal, with the exception of drafting the final GDP report, which was collaboratively created Individual contributions to this report were included in students' theses, with some students having written up to 30 pages by July.
In the first six months of the MScT program, students engaged primarily in intensive lecture courses, with examinations occurring in July and September, which enhanced their listening skills with both native and non-native English speakers While some students felt confident enough to ask questions during lectures, others preferred to seek clarification from peers in Chinese, reflecting varying levels of confidence in their speaking abilities Additionally, students participated in GDP meetings every two weeks starting mid-March, fostering interaction with peers from diverse nationalities, although this diversity limited their opportunities to present at public meetings, which were less frequent than those in the research program Despite completing regular assignments for assessment, the focus was more on numerical tasks rather than textual writing, providing limited opportunities for developing writing skills.
Following the final GDP presentations in August or September, students from both programs primarily focus on reading academic papers and writing their theses, usually meeting with their supervisors weekly If the supervisor is Chinese, these meetings may be held in Chinese rather than English.
Students across various programs generally found listening and reading to be the easiest language skills, while writing and speaking were perceived as the most challenging Research students consistently rated reading as the easiest and speaking as the most difficult, although two students identified listening as their greatest challenge Additionally, writing appeared to be less problematic for research students compared to MScT students Notably, one MScT student rated speaking as the easiest skill, a case discussed in Section 8.2.3 Furthermore, MScT students tended to evaluate their skills in relation to their IELTS entry scores.
MScR students reported challenges with vocabulary and pronunciation, particularly with new technological terms that were outside their engineering expertise To address specific pronunciation issues, some students utilized phonetics and online voice dictionaries The limited listening opportunities may have contributed to these difficulties, as both MScR and taught course students noted struggles with accented English, with the latter group experiencing this more frequently The demanding lecture schedule and the presence of several non-native English-speaking lecturers in the taught program likely explain these listening challenges.
In a follow-up interview with ten students, six identified speaking as their most challenging skill, while two cited writing and two mentioned listening Only three students altered their initial assessments: two shifted from writing as the most difficult to speaking, while one reversed their stance Despite a growing emphasis on writing skills during the second interviews, the overall difficulties students faced with speaking remained unchanged over the six-month period.
While I can comprehend spoken English well, my speaking skills are not as strong as I would like them to be This is largely due to the limited opportunities I have to practice, particularly in oral communication Consequently, this lack of practice poses a challenge for me.
Three MScT students, during a follow-up interview, reported advancements in their ability to present academically and engage in discussions within their fields While they acknowledged improvements, challenges persisted in conversing about everyday topics and specific situations, like hospital visits Some students expressed hesitance in asserting any progress in their language skills.
The claims made by students reflect not just modesty but a struggle with self-assessment without external feedback, such as writing evaluations or formal tests Additionally, the immediate feedback they receive on their speaking skills during conversations may negatively influence their self-evaluation of this language ability compared to other skills.
Students reported that their language skills improved through consistent practice and usage of English, while a lack of practice hindered their progress Recommendations for enhancing English proficiency included engaging more with non-AVIC students and academics, dedicating time to the GDP, and for research students, participating in short courses focused on listening skills However, taught course students highlighted time constraints from their full schedules, which limited their opportunities for interaction Despite these challenges, some students actively sought various methods to practice and enhance their English, while others struggled with shyness and a lack of confidence, resulting in a more passive approach to improvement.
The use of English in extra-curricular contexts
Most students reported minimal use of English outside of academic environments, with one student noting that living in Cranfield felt similar to being in China Eighteen students shared housing with fellow AVIC students, often far from campus, and relied on a shared car for transportation due to poor local transport links While Chinese was predominantly spoken at home, one house included a Hungarian doctoral student with whom some English was used Two MScT students lived on campus with peers from various nationalities, actively speaking English and participating in social events One student transitioned from an AVIC house to campus life to enhance his social circle Another research student expressed a desire to move to campus but was doubtful about the outcome Although four research students had English-speaking friends in the AVD department, they were unable to attend social events due to transportation limitations that confined them to campus hours.
The decision to choose off-campus housing was influenced by financial considerations, as on-campus options are generally more costly Additionally, securing on-campus accommodation during the academic year is nearly impossible Furthermore, students who began their courses in the previous autumn had already formed social connections, creating challenges for AVIC students in terms of integration.
A limited number of students engaged with the Cranfield Students’ Association or participated in student societies While more than half utilized the university's sports facilities, many preferred playing sports like badminton with fellow Chinese students Basic activities such as sports and shopping did not necessitate advanced English skills; however, tasks like sending a parcel to China or scheduling a doctor's appointment were considered challenging.
Student: “I sent a parcel to my home in Parcel Post Office.”
Interviewer: “Yeah, in the Post Office?”
A: “Yes I communicate with a lady in the office A little difficult.”
A: “Yes But … maybe okay because I send the parcel successfully.”
Many students expressed a strong desire to learn more about English culture, recognizing its significance for their careers and national development Early interviews revealed a common concern among students about their limited cultural awareness, which led to fears of unintentionally causing offense Additionally, time constraints were often cited as a barrier to socializing and enhancing their English language skills.
Nine students, comprising five MScR and four MScT, actively sought to enhance their English skills through various methods, including listening to the radio, watching TV and movies online, and reading local newspapers Among them, five students living together (three MScT and two MScR) participated in religious meetings, such as a Bible class and a private gathering with past AVIC students Additionally, other students pursued individual opportunities to improve their English; for instance, MScR5 engaged in an online BBC English course, MScT2 was learning to drive, and MScR11 maintained an English diary.
AVIC students reported limited exposure to UK culture, influenced by structural constraints, academic pressures, personal preferences, and low confidence in their English-speaking abilities To enhance their English language skills, they advised future students to live on campus, foster friendships with non-Chinese peers, and engage in more conversations with fellow students and academics.
Living on campus offers numerous advantages, including ample opportunities to connect with international students and make friends from various countries Residents can attend football games and access sports facilities at their convenience, enhancing their social experience Additionally, the Cranfield Students Association (CSA) provides a great atmosphere to enjoy leisure activities, such as socializing over drinks.
Two students living on campus exemplified the effectiveness of these strategies, particularly T18, who initially scored 4.5 in IELTS Speaking Confidence played a crucial role in determining a student's ability to step outside the cultural and social comfort provided by the AVIC cohort For instance, MScR5 shared experiences of traveling around the area, highlighting the impact of these strategies on their personal growth.
In the UK, it is advisable for individuals to engage in activities independently to foster their independence and enhance their speaking and cultural skills Staying within the comfort of a peer group often limits opportunities to practice English in extracurricular settings, leading to a challenging cycle that hinders language development.
Evaluations of spoken English
Section 7 presents an analysis of students' spoken English skills based on interview sound files, highlighting the methodology used in conducting the interviews and the implications for assessing their speaking abilities Initially, interviews conducted before June 2010 faced communication challenges, leading to instances of leading questions and the need for rephrasing, despite efforts to maintain clarity However, interviews after July 2010 demonstrated noticeable improvements in students' listening and speaking skills This progress is further evidenced by a decrease in transcriber queries on the interview transcripts and an increase in the interviewer's speech speed, indicating enhanced comprehension and communication over the four-month period.
In summary, the interview data support and build upon the documentary review by delineating similar differences between the English language demands of the taught and research programs (see
Section 6.2) However, the interview data also extend the review findings by showing how GDP implementation impacts differentially upon the students’ linguistic skills in the two programs
MScR students may have more opportunities to practice spoken English on the GDP than initially expected Their experiences studying English in China, which focuses heavily on reading, align with their IELTS sub-scores and reinforce their belief that speaking remains the most challenging language skill, even after eight months in the program All students recognized that the key to enhancing their English proficiency lies in consistent practice.
English outside of academic contexts occurred infrequently and had to be actively sought out
Although a review of students’ speech from the sound files indicated improvement (see Section 7.2.3), the majority of students lacked confidence in their use of English in everyday social situations
Students expressed regret over their limited engagement with UK culture, which stemmed from their residential arrangements and misalignment with the traditional academic calendar, particularly affecting MScT students due to time constraints This created a vicious cycle where the comfort of belonging to the AVIC peer group hindered their independence and initiative, ultimately restricting their opportunities to enhance and utilize their English skills.
9 DIRECT OBSERVATIONS OF TEACHING SESSIONS
Method
The observational data aimed to fulfill multiple research objectives by comparing the English language demands of the Group Discussion Programs (GDPs) and analyzing students' responses to these demands The GDP was selected for observation due to its role as a primary platform for students to practice and enhance their English speaking skills, as highlighted by previous documentary reviews and interviews Additionally, the GDP provided a more public and accessible environment than traditional lecture or supervisor-student meetings, allowing for a genuine observation of everyday interactions without the influence of the researcher The public nature and size of GDP meetings minimized potential biases, ensuring that the researcher's presence did not significantly alter the dynamics of the discussions Overall, while the observational data supported the main research objectives, its contributions were more limited in certain aspects.
Although not included in the original proposal, ample data was collected to assess certain students' linguistic progress throughout the GDP, especially when combined with interview data Additionally, the study enabled an analysis of the relationship between AVIC and non-AVIC students regarding the MScT, addressing research objective 5.
From April to early September, significant observation time was dedicated to analyzing GDP and related data, resulting in the observation of 19 sessions—10 MScR and 7 MScT regular sessions, along with both final formal presentations Due to scheduling conflicts between the two programs, approximately alternate MScR sessions were observed, as MScT sessions occurred biweekly Additionally, three sub-group meetings for MScR were observed, while no sub-group meetings were noted in the MScT GDP program GLJ attended all sessions except the final presentation, which was observed by CB The researchers conducted direct observations, positioning themselves among the student body during the sessions.
During the MScR sessions, it was essential to position oneself directly behind the academic staff in the front row to clearly hear the interactions between the presenting student and the faculty Handwritten field notes were taken during the session and later digitized within 24 hours.
MScR GDP sessions MScT GDP sessions
9 + Air Frame sub group meeting 5.8.10
Table 8: Dates of observed GDP sessions
Findings
Organisation of GDP sessions
The two GDP programs, while similar in concept, were structured differently Each of the four multinational MScT teams, consisting of 11–12 students, selected a leader and assigned tasks among members between sessions During each GDP session, teams presented a 10-minute PowerPoint presentation, followed by a 10-minute Q&A, with three students sharing presentation duties throughout Typically, sessions lasted between 1.5 to 2 hours, including a short break and feedback from two tutors who monitored time and posed questions Although there was no formal agenda and not all teams named presenters, the tutors provided final feedback at the front of the lecture theatre, while other staff occasionally attended without participating.
The MScR students were assigned to three sub-groups responsible for different aspects of aircraft design: structure and aerodynamics; systems; and avionics Teams consisted of between seven and
In a structured seminar setting, 11 students were assigned specific responsibilities, such as managing environmental control systems and flight deck controls, while up to eight staff members participated in the GDP sessions, seated in the front rows Each session began with a formal introduction led by a designated student, who facilitated the proceedings Staff received printed agendas detailing presenters, topics, and timings, and sub-group leaders presented their work in a 90-minute segment, followed by questions and comments from tutors After a brief intermission, students reconvened in their sub-groups for approximately two hours to present their individual projects to peers and staff.
The management of GDP sessions significantly impacted students' English language usage in the program MScR students benefited from increased opportunities due to the greater number of overall sessions and the frequent sub-group meetings, which were conducted in English and attended by staff.
In mid-July, an observed sub-group meeting of Avionics MScR students revealed significant engagement among five participating students, who each delivered PowerPoint presentations while the tutor interjected for clarification Notably, the students actively debated various topics for 10–15 minutes on three occasions, challenging equations, questioning figures, and discussing the scope of presentations This level of interaction contradicted the stereotype of East Asian students, showcasing how group work fosters English usage Although other sub-group meetings were less interactive, all students presented and engaged in discussions with tutors and peers These observations may clarify the positive feedback MScR students provided about the GDP in interview data.
The lack of observational data from MScT team meetings is unfortunate, as it prevents any conclusions about English language usage in these settings Since the meetings were student-led and attendance records were unavailable, insights from interviews reveal that AVIC students often missed opportunities to enhance their speaking skills For instance, Student T2 noted that his team conversed in Chinese when non-AVIC members were not present, while T26 indicated she preferred to ask an AVIC colleague in Chinese for clarification rather than attempt to use English.
Student presentations in the GDP
The intention to track the frequency of MScT students' presentations during GDP sessions was hindered by challenges in identifying these students without a meeting agenda If presentation duties were shared equally, each MScT student would be expected to present three times throughout the GDP, a finding that aligned with both interview and observational data In contrast, presentations within the MScR program tended to favor sub-group leaders, who participated in most observed sessions, albeit not always extensively In both programs, students faced with particularly challenging problems tended to present more often or for longer durations.
MScT AVIC students typically delivered presentations lasting three to six minutes, with more confident speakers occasionally exceeding this time, while non-AVIC students often ran over time In contrast, MScR presentations varied from five to 20 minutes, frequently adhering to a formulaic style that involved reading directly from slides Although many students exhibited errors in pronunciation and grammar, most presentations remained comprehensible, and a noticeable improvement in confidence and fluency was observed over time, particularly in students R5, R16, R20, T12, and T14 Tutors in the MScT program emphasized the importance of English language skills and presentation techniques in their feedback, urging students to engage more dynamically with their slides, while MScR feedback was more immediate and detailed.
During the Q&A session after the presentation, students showcased their ability to speak extemporaneously, demonstrating their knowledge Notably, the MScR program had individual questioning for each student, while the taught program allowed for team-based responses, although specific questions could be directed at individual members On two occasions, when AVIC students did not respond, a European team member intervened to answer, once even from the audience.
The final presentations for the MScR and MScT programs showcased significant differences in style and format The MScR presentation lasted four hours and was attended by four external examiners along with several Cranfield staff members In contrast, the MScT presentation resembled a standard GDP meeting and was not subject to summative assessment; however, team reports are submitted to AVIC for evaluation against previous cohorts All students are required to contribute to the group GDP report and include a section in their theses detailing their individual contributions to the GDP.
The MScR final presentation was a formal event where students donned black suits, and attendees received a GDP report along with a timed agenda upon entering the lecture theatre, which featured soothing Chinese music During his introduction, student R12 highlighted that the GDP had: ‘entailed ’
Over five months, 29 students dedicated 20,000 working hours and participated in 23 weekly meetings, culminating in a series of morning presentations that showcased videos of their plane's design and simulated flight Despite minor pronunciation errors, the majority of the presentations were clear and understandable, with only a few responses to examiners' questions being inaudible The students received commendations for their English proficiency from both a native English-speaking examiner and the GDP Director for their highly professional final presentation.
During the MScT final presentation, each team had a total of 30 minutes, with twelve students participating, including ten from AVIC Each student delivered a five-minute presentation, followed by a Q&A session involving all team members The selection of speakers was done by lottery The overall quality of presentations varied, with some students demonstrating confidence and fluency, while others struggled, leading to further inquiries in subsequent interviews Notably, Student T6, despite possessing good speaking skills, expressed a lack of confidence due to insufficient expertise on the presentation topic.
Socio-cultural aspects of GDP sessions
The study reveals significant differences in attendance and seating patterns between MScT AVIC and non-AVIC students during GDP sessions Nearly all AVIC students participated fully, while non-AVIC students attended only about 50% of the time, often for partial sessions The groups consistently sat separately, with Chinese students positioned at the front and non-AVIC students in the back, except during presentations, highlighting a clear division between the two cohorts throughout the sessions starting from June 3.
Since 2010, a few AVIC students, particularly T14, have been observed engaging in English conversations with non-AVIC peers during breaks Student T12 frequently utilized this time to pose questions to ancillary tutors in English The MScT tutors fostered an interactive environment by encouraging students to ask questions before providing their own feedback This approach effectively led to an increase in AVIC students posing questions to their colleagues following presentations Consequently, there is clear evidence that some MScT AVIC students actively sought to use English in both social and academic contexts during GDP sessions.
The observational data corroborated the interview findings, revealing that the research GDP offered more opportunities for listening and speaking English than the taught program, primarily due to a higher number of meetings and active staff participation in sub-group discussions MScR students showed notable improvement in their spoken English during presentations throughout the GDP, while MScT students exhibited some enhancement, though not as uniformly or confidently as their MScR counterparts Despite the limited data, there was evidence of social integration between AVIC and other MScT students, particularly among two MScT students whose spoken English improved and who were frequently observed engaging in English conversations with staff and peers during breaks.
Methods
The diary study focused on the fourth research objective, examining the correlation between students' total study hours and workload with their English language progress during the first 10 months of the MSc programs As the sole data collection method for this objective, the study aimed to document the comprehensive use of English by students, encompassing background reading, lectures, GDP, and writing This approach was based on the premise that the time spent in the classroom merely reflects a small portion of the overall English language engagement by students.
The study focused on 24 students enrolled in an English language course, evenly split between two programs, using the widely recognized 'Blackboard' electronic system for enrollment A concise questionnaire was developed to assess the time students spent using English for both academic and extracurricular activities, categorizing their engagement into different language skills To ensure ease of use and minimize disruption to study time, the diary featured straightforward questions that encouraged simple numerical responses This approach addressed earlier concerns regarding limited extracurricular English usage reported by students An academic staff member familiar with the Blackboard system reviewed the questions and provided guidance on administering the diary through the platform.
In May 2010, diary questions were posted on the Blackboard blog pages, but only four responses were received after three weeks To boost engagement, a reminder was sent to non-respondents, leading to an additional four replies by the month's end Incomplete answers prompted follow-up questions through the blog or email, though not all students engaged with the second inquiry Ultimately, responses came from five taught course students and three research course students.
The study's findings were marked by low response rates (33%) and incomplete answers, indicating potential misunderstandings of the questions The ambiguity in student replies, including varying time estimates, suggests that the questions may not have been sufficiently clear Additionally, the separation of language skills, such as listening and speaking, introduced an artificial element to the data collection process This focus on numeric data may have led to the formulation of contrived questions, resulting in unreliable data Therefore, it remains unclear how much students' English proficiency or the poorly structured questions contributed to the unsatisfactory outcomes.
To address the failure of the diary on the Blackboard blog, additional questions were added to interviews from June onwards but this produced another partial and, therefore, unsatisfactory dataset
In late 2010, an anonymous, simplified paper version of the diary questionnaire was distributed to students in six English writing classes to assess their confidence in using language skills and their intention to utilize proofreaders for their theses The confidence questions utilized a five-point scale ranging from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree,' while the proofreading question offered 'Yes,' 'No,' and 'Undecided' options Completed questionnaires were collected by class tutors during the sessions, although one MScT session was missed due to a tutor's illness While participation was voluntary and no attendance records were maintained, separate classes were organized for MScR and MScT students Some questionnaires were mistakenly reused from previous weeks, leading to confusion regarding the data collection.
Findings
A total of 157 questionnaires were collected, with 91 responses from MScR students and 66 from MScT students Attendance at writing class sessions varied, with MScR students attending between six to 25 sessions and MScT students attending between 10 to 16 sessions Research students demonstrated a higher attendance rate, with 55% to 75% participating in the sessions, while MScT students had a lower attendance rate, ranging from 36% to 58%.
Table 9 presents the estimated time students spend using English for extracurricular and academic work MScR students reported using English for academic purposes for an average of 5.21 hours per day, slightly more than the 4.95 hours reported by MScT students Both groups engaged in thesis writing, indicating consistency in their academic efforts Notably, two students initially indicated they had not used any English in the past week, likely due to a misunderstanding of the term ‘course,’ which was later clarified to ‘independent research project’ in subsequent questionnaires, resulting in more coherent responses The variation in reported hours among students may stem from the limitations of digitally-based software programs Furthermore, the use of English for extracurricular activities was significantly lower than for academic work, aligning with findings from other data sources.
Research students dedicate approximately twice as much time to extra-curricular activities compared to taught students, spending an average of 2.75 hours daily versus 1.61 hours This significant difference suggests that research students may engage more with English outside the classroom, aligning with their observed higher proficiency in academic presentations during GDP presentations.
Table 10 presents the confidence ratings of students across various language skills Research students evaluated their reading confidence over two sessions, while taught students assessed their listening confidence during the same timeframe The average ratings for the taught course sessions were similar, at 2.87 and 2.91, whereas the research students exhibited a notable difference in their ratings, with averages of 2.38 and 2.11 Only the larger class's results are displayed.
Due to the risk of duplicating responses, it is essential to maintain a response rate above 50% for any confidence rating While data on MScT students' reading skills is absent, both MScR and MScT students exhibit the least confidence in writing in English, followed by listening, speaking, and showing the most confidence in reading The confidence rating range for MScR students between reading and writing is 0.78, while for MScT students, the range between listening and writing is 0.63.
Session Range of hours/day spent by
Average hours/day spent by MScR students using English on academic work
Range of hours/day spent by MScT students using English on academic work
Average hours/day spent by MScT students using English on academic work
Range of hours/day spent by MScR students using English in extra- curricular activities
Average hours/day spent by MScR students using English in extra- curricular activities
Range of hours/day spent by MScT students using English in extra- curricular activities
Average hours/day spent by MScT students using English in extra- curricular activities
Table 9: Hours spent using English language in academic and extra-curricular contexts by MScR and MScT students
*Average ratings of MScR students
*Average scores of MScT students
Reading in English 21 2.38 No data No data
*Rating scale: 1=strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree
Table 10: MScT and MScR students’ confidence ratings for language skills
Research students reported higher self-confidence in their language skills compared to their taught peers, with differences ranging from 0.25 to 0.41 on the rating scale Notably, the smallest difference was observed in listening skills, where taught students, despite their greater experience, did not express significantly more confidence Conversely, the most substantial disparity was in speaking skills, with MScR students rating themselves nearly 8% more confident than their taught counterparts.
A study on students' intentions to utilize proofreaders revealed similar interest levels in both MScT and MScR programs, with low response rates of 36% and 38%, respectively Among MScT students, four expressed a willingness to use a proofreader, while five opted against it, and one remained undecided In contrast, five MScR students indicated their intention to use a proofreader, but six planned to forgo this option.
A second attempt to collect data on students' English language usage through a paper questionnaire during their thesis writing phase was successful, unlike the initial effort using an electronic blog The findings revealed that students were dedicating approximately five hours daily to using English while developing their theses in the final stages of their programs.
MScR students utilized English significantly more in extracurricular activities compared to their taught peers, despite spending less time on English outside of academic work Additionally, MScR students exhibited higher confidence levels across various language skills than MScT students, with both groups feeling the least confident in writing Notably, the most substantial disparity in confidence was observed in speaking English between the two programs.
The revision process hindered the tracking of English language usage in relation to students’ linguistic progress across various program stages The timing of the questionnaire coincided with a peak in writing demands, a skill for which data was scarce Findings from the diary correlated well with other sources; for instance, MScT students reported higher confidence levels, supported by GDP observations, while limited English use outside academia was confirmed through interviews Additionally, students showed greater confidence in reading, as indicated by pre-entry IELTS scores A minor contradiction arose when students rated writing as their least confident skill in the diary, despite earlier interviews indicating speaking as their greatest challenge This discrepancy may stem from the sampling methods, as students with lower IELTS Speaking sub-scores were prioritized for interviews, making their concerns about speaking understandable Furthermore, those seeking help in writing classes likely had lower confidence in their writing abilities.
Method
In this part of the case study, supervisors of AVIC students were surveyed about their students’
This article highlights the importance of assessing English language writing skills to evaluate students' linguistic progress, incorporating various English language tests, self-reports, and observational data Previous research demonstrated that a questionnaire for thesis supervisors effectively identified how non-native English speakers' writing proficiency impacts supervisors' workloads The insights gained from supervisors’ evaluations provide a unique perspective on students' language development, contrasting with standard English tests and self-assessments.
An electronic questionnaire was developed to gather insights from supervisors regarding their supervisory experiences, specifically focusing on their practices of providing feedback on written English to students Additionally, the questionnaire sought to evaluate the English language proficiency of AVIC students in relation to the supervisors' workload.
(Appendix 7) When relevant to the question format, a five-point scale from ‘strongly agree’ to
In a recent survey, supervisors expressed their views on marking practices, particularly regarding the handling of poor English, with many indicating a strong disagreement with ignoring such issues An open-ended question provided an opportunity for additional comments, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of their perspectives To maintain confidentiality, the questionnaire was conducted anonymously, preventing identification of both students and supervisors The pilot of the questionnaire was successfully carried out within the Learning and Development Department.
Course administrators provided lists of supervisors from relevant departments, with ten supervisors sharing the supervisory responsibilities for each program Each supervisor oversaw between one and eleven students, with a total of thirteen students being co-supervised The maximum number of students assigned to a single supervisor was seven An email was sent to the supervisors requesting their feedback on their experiences with the current cohort of AVIC students.
The questionnaire was available for six weeks starting in November 2010, during which two reminder emails were sent to supervisors One supervisor, unable to access the online survey, provided their responses via phone to researcher GLJ, who then entered the data into the website.
Findings
Out of 20 supervisors, 10 participated in the questionnaire, resulting in a 50% response rate The taught course saw a higher engagement, with 70% of supervisors responding, while the research program had a lower response rate of only 30% Supervisors' experience in overseeing Masters theses varied significantly, ranging from one to 40 years, with an average of 13 years Due to the limited number of responses, results from both programs were combined Notably, a significant majority, 80% of supervisors, either agreed or strongly agreed that they consistently provided feedback to AVIC students regarding their English language proficiency.
In a recent assessment of supervisors' perceptions regarding AVIC students' English language proficiency, one supervisor was neutral while another strongly disagreed about consistently providing feedback Half of the supervisors (50%) reported that their supervisory workload was negatively impacted by the students' language skills, while 30% disagreed with this assertion, and 20% remained neutral Responses regarding the quality of English in AVIC students' Master's theses varied significantly: 40% of supervisors disagreed or strongly disagreed with the standards, 30% were neutral, and another 30% expressed agreement or strong agreement.
Marking practices among supervisors varied significantly regarding the deduction of marks for poor English Thirty percent always deducted marks, while twenty percent did so conditionally, and ten percent ignored language issues altogether Forty percent provided open responses, highlighting different approaches: one supervisor penalized poor presentation, another requested minor revisions, and one suggested using a proofreader Additionally, supervisors prioritized clarity of meaning, often overlooking minor language errors if the text was clear They also noted variability in AVIC students' English proficiency, which could impact their workload Furthermore, one supervisor acknowledged the positive effect of the GDP on improving AVIC students' English skills.
The variation in supervisors’ experiences regarding the standards of written English in AVIC students' theses can be attributed to the diverse English language abilities of the students, as indicated by their entry IELTS sub-scores The findings reveal that difficulties in writing English have negatively affected the workloads of half of the surveyed supervisors, which represents a quarter of all supervisors This aligns with the low confidence ratings in writing skills among responding students, who were already seeking assistance in English classes However, writing test results show a general improvement in students’ writing, despite the limited sample size.
A study involving 10 students from each program revealed that their writing abilities, as noted by supervisors, varied significantly However, an analysis of their writing samples indicated overall progress, with most students demonstrating an improvement of 0.5 on the IELTS Writing band scale compared to their initial scores upon entering Cranfield.
12 SUMMARY OF THE CASE STUDY FINDINGS
Mainly as a result of the way English has been taught in China, the AVIC student cohort arrived in the
In the UK, students exhibit significant differences in their receptive and expressive language abilities, with those in China facing limited opportunities to enhance their expressive skills Entry IELTS scores reveal strengths in reading and listening but weaknesses in writing and speaking Both MSc programs require students to produce a Master's level thesis and engage in regular presentations, yet the MScT program particularly emphasizes strong listening skills for its comprehensive lecture course The MScR program offers more frequent opportunities for students to practice listening and speaking through regular meetings and staff involvement Surprisingly, the presence of non-Chinese students in the MScT program did not lead to increased spoken English use, unlike anticipated Students valued the Graduate Development Program (GDP) as a chance to improve their listening and speaking abilities, although many, especially those with weaker skills, still found speaking to be the most challenging aspect of language learning Additionally, some students expressed a lack of confidence in their writing skills during independent research projects where effective writing was crucial.
AVIC students, particularly those in the MScT program, experienced limited opportunities to use English outside of their academic environment due to off-campus residential arrangements and a misalignment with the traditional academic calendar Most students relied heavily on their peer groups for social interactions, resulting in minimal chances to practice English unless they actively sought those opportunities This necessitated a significant degree of initiative and independence to engage with UK culture and language Consequently, the academic setting became the primary venue for enhancing English skills, while a lack of confidence in speaking English outside of this context hindered social independence, creating a challenging cycle for students to break free from.
The interpretation of test evidence regarding students' linguistic progress should be approached with caution, as it is based on small, convenience samples and a brief research duration Nonetheless, there were indications of improvement in reading, writing, and speaking skills However, the listening test data was found to be technically flawed Supervisors noted variability in writing skills, with a quarter indicating that this affected their workload, reflecting the entry IELTS sub-scores in writing Conversely, observational data and interview recordings suggested enhancements in speaking and listening skills, although students demonstrated a lack of confidence in using English outside academic settings and were reluctant to recognize the importance of their improved language proficiency.
The case study reveals four crucial findings: the impact of students' extracurricular experiences, the level of English proficiency upon entry, the effectiveness of course implementation, and the assessment of admissions criteria regarding English language test scores Additionally, it highlights the necessity for English language support, both before and during the academic sessions.
Extra-curricular experience
This case study reinforces previous research indicating that non-native English speaking (NNES) international students experience social and cultural isolation (UKCOSA, 2004; Andrade, 2006; Zhang and Brunton, 2007; Sawir et al., 2008; Brown, 2008; Campbell and Li, 2008; Walsh, 2010) Although the current study did not uncover the negative aspects of isolation highlighted in earlier findings, AVIC students expressed regret over their limited interactions with UK nationals and culture A surprising finding was the minimal use of English outside of their MSc programs, which represents a significant contribution to existing literature The AVIC cohort's reliance on each other for extracurricular activities inadvertently restricted their opportunities to engage in English-speaking environments, as most students participated in sports primarily with their peers rather than with other students.
(2009), students’ concerns about socio-cultural factors persisted throughout the duration of the research while academic issues receded
The social situation of AVIC students is influenced by structural constraints, group dynamics, and English language proficiency Key constraints include the course's timing, which starts six months after the regular academic year, and the lack of national diversity, particularly in the MScR program These structural issues significantly impact students' extracurricular experiences, especially regarding off-campus living arrangements Students residing on-campus reported greater social integration, improved speaking skills, increased confidence, and the ability to form friendships outside their cohort Current students recommend that future AVIC students enhance their English skills by living on-campus and engaging with non-AVIC peers While sharing accommodations with fellow Chinese students fosters cultural continuity, it can also isolate individuals from the broader campus community, hindering social integration.
When comparing academic time demands, NNES students in MSc programs face similar challenges as their peers in the same courses Additionally, Section 13.3 addresses the issue of limited national diversity among students enrolled in these programs.
The social impact of the AVIC cohort structure is considerable in this study As Zhou and Todman
Social group membership significantly impacts attitudes and judgments, particularly for international students in AVIC groups While these groups provide essential support in academic, linguistic, and cultural matters, helping students adjust to new environments, they may also limit opportunities for personal growth and linguistic development AVIC students often face a choice between relying on their cohort or seeking independence, with the latter requiring individualism and determination, as seen in narratives of students engaging in activities like traveling alone or joining university clubs Unfortunately, those living off-campus may struggle to find opportunities to practice English, emphasizing the importance of the group dynamic Students who venture outside their cohort tend to exhibit greater confidence and improved language skills, while those who remain dependent on their group often lack confidence in their abilities This dynamic suggests that a low collective confidence in language skills can reinforce reliance on the peer group, hindering personal development.
Even socially independent students face challenges with practical tasks familiar to UK residents, such as attending hospital appointments, mailing parcels abroad, and borrowing library books These difficulties may arise from their desire to engage with UK culture, unlike their less adventurous peers This aligns with Walsh's (2010) findings, which highlight the importance of cultural knowledge alongside language skills for international non-native English speakers Walsh emphasizes that a lack of understanding of cultural norms can hinder social and academic integration and perpetuate national stereotypes.
Extra-curricular contexts present greater challenges for students compared to academic settings, highlighting the importance of cultural knowledge in education If cultural understanding is not effectively taught, as noted by Walsh (2010), students must be more willing to seek experiences outside their immediate group This willingness becomes crucial for those facing similar challenges in their educational journeys.
English language proficiency on entry
Students in China exhibit varied English proficiency, as evidenced by their IELTS scores, with high marks in Reading and Listening but lower results in Writing and Speaking This discrepancy is attributed to teaching methods and limited opportunities for verbal practice, especially in rural areas Notably, some students excelled in Reading, allowing them to offset lower Writing and Speaking scores to achieve the required Band 6.0 for entry Consequently, they faced challenges in meeting the speaking and writing demands of their courses Zhang and Mi (2010) support these findings, noting that practical training in listening and speaking skills in China often remains unfulfilled However, there is potential for improvement as English teaching in China may be evolving to better address these skill disparities.
The speaking skills of Chinese students are often perceived as weak, reinforcing the stereotype of passive Asian students in Western environments This issue is exacerbated by AVIC students' concerns about making linguistic mistakes that could lead to cultural misunderstandings Consequently, this lack of proficiency contributes to a general lack of confidence among peers and hinders their willingness to pursue social independence beyond their immediate group.
Curricular implementation
Zhang and Mi emphasize the crucial role of language practice in enhancing proficiency, particularly through various curriculum implementations The GDP program exemplifies this by providing students with valuable opportunities to enhance their listening and speaking skills Interestingly, the study revealed that MScR students showed significantly greater improvements in speaking skills than their MScT counterparts This unexpected outcome may stem from the MScT course's mixed nationalities not yielding the anticipated benefits, likely due to fewer GDP sessions and limited staff engagement in subgroup meetings Additionally, the voluntary participation of non-AVIC students in the GDP could have affected their attendance and, consequently, their English usage during these meetings The MScR students’ increased engagement in extracurricular English activities suggests a more independent approach, though it remains uncertain whether this inclination is personal or a result of the research-focused course structure Nonetheless, it is improbable that individual disposition fully explains the disparities in speaking proficiency.
The case study highlights the methodological significance of observation methods in enhancing conventional mixed methods research, which typically combines questionnaires and interview data The observational data provided valuable insights that connected seemingly unrelated findings, such as the initial positive indicators from the curriculum analysis regarding the English language development of MScT students and the notable improvement in speaking skills among MScR students By observing the GDP sessions, a more nuanced understanding of the impact of curricular implementations emerged, cautioning against oversimplified evaluations of curriculum effectiveness based solely on student outcomes.
Evaluation and recommendations
This section presents recommendations based on the case study findings, particularly focusing on research objective 6, which evaluates the admissions requirements for non-native English speaking (NNES) students and emphasizes the necessity for in-sessional English language support.
The relationship between academic adjustment and academic performance as defined by Andrade
In 2006, it was suggested that students with borderline English language proficiency can greatly benefit from opportunities to practice and enhance their language skills, aiding their social and academic acclimatization However, in contexts where extracurricular English usage is limited, such as the current situation, these valuable opportunities are often missed.
The responsibilities for the social well-being of international students are complex and not easily defined, as highlighted in the case study This study reveals that these responsibilities are shared among various stakeholders, including sponsors, higher education institutions (HEIs), academic staff, service departments, and the students themselves To address the uncertainties surrounding these roles, it is essential to clarify and make these responsibilities more explicit, ultimately improving the support system for international students.
Chinese students need enhanced preparation for UK Masters degree studies, particularly in speaking and writing skills Shifting the focus of English education in China from reading to speaking and listening is crucial, as evidenced by a recent Australian study (Zhang and Mi, 2010) AVIC students have acknowledged these challenges and potential solutions While national secondary teaching methods may not change quickly, it is feasible to customize pre-sessional English courses for incoming students, emphasizing the development of their speaking and writing abilities.
The higher education institution (HEI) must reassess its admissions criteria for English language proficiency, particularly by evaluating IELTS sub-scores alongside overall scores The current practice of admitting students with lower entry requirements has led to 27 individuals entering with inadequate Speaking and Listening scores (4.5 and 5), which significantly hinders their ability to meet the rigorous demands of postgraduate studies This situation not only disadvantages these students but also complicates their academic tasks Consequently, accepting students with such low language proficiency necessitates increased in-sessional English language support, which poses additional resource challenges for the institution.
To promote English language development and social integration among students, it is essential to ensure that large groups of co-national students share accommodation with other nationalities While this practice is implemented in campus housing, it often does not extend to off-campus living arrangements Many students expressed regret over the challenges faced when sharing accommodation with peers outside the campus environment Although financial factors currently impact accommodation choices, there is optimism that these constraints may be alleviated in the future.
To enhance English-speaking practice for non-native English-speaking (NNES) students, it is essential to establish a group of local, native English-speaking volunteers Utilizing the 'English corner' model mentioned in this report, regular sessions can be organized to align with program schedules In the current socio-economic environment, leveraging a pool of volunteers offers significant economic and social advantages.
To effectively manage students' expectations regarding English language development, it is crucial to emphasize their individual responsibility in seizing opportunities for improvement and social integration Clear policy statements should outline these responsibilities, highlighting the impact of various accommodation options on their language learning journey.
China has become a leading donor nation in international higher education, sending 50,000 students annually to the UK This study investigates the English language requirements faced by Chinese postgraduate engineering students in UK Master's programs and their responses to these challenges It compares the experiences of students in two different Master's programs: a Research-based Master's, which comprised solely Chinese students, and a taught course that included a small number of non-UK students, examining both academic and extracurricular contexts.
Research on the socio-cultural experiences of international students often highlights feelings of isolation, stress, and loneliness, although some authors present a more optimistic perspective while acknowledging that complete socio-cultural assimilation is more of an ideal than a reality Current evidence supports both viewpoints, indicating that limited opportunities to use English and engage with native speakers hinder social integration While peer groups can alleviate feelings of loneliness by preserving home language and cultural norms, they may simultaneously restrict independence, which is essential for building confidence and fostering greater interaction with other students.
Previous research has overlooked the connection between students' socio-cultural experiences and their English language development The limited use of English in extracurricular activities led to students relying heavily on academic programs for language improvement A group design project provided a significant opportunity to enhance students' speaking skills, although its implementation had unforeseen effects Various assessments, including students' self-evaluations, demonstrated notable progress in English proficiency over a 10-month period However, the scarcity of extracurricular English usage contributed to a lack of confidence, reinforcing previous studies that highlight the crucial relationship between cultural and linguistic knowledge and competence.
The findings highlight that the responsibility for the social well-being of international students is a shared obligation among multiple stakeholders This discussion aligns with ongoing debates in higher education literature, which explore the tensions between consumerist and managerial approaches versus the liberal educational tradition aimed at fostering resourceful and independent learners.
The case study approach restricts broader generalizations to other contexts, making recommendations specific to the research site However, similarities in context, such as mono-national student groups or living arrangements, may allow for some degree of generalization Future research should explore the use of English by international students in both extracurricular and academic settings across various disciplines at undergraduate and doctoral levels.
We wish to thank the British Council, IELTS Australia and University of Cambridge for granting us the opportunity to carry out this research
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the course directors, lecturers, and students at Cranfield University for their invaluable contributions to this study, especially Mandy Hong, Jingfei Evans, and Effie.
Barwick who provided considerable assistance with administration We also thank Peter Harrison for his advice on the use of Blackboard
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Introductory email to students
We are conducting research on how non-native English-speaking students enhance their English language skills, particularly in speaking and writing This study aims to improve the English language support services provided by Cranfield for current and future AVIC students As part of this project, we will invite you to participate in interviews or allow us to observe some group project sessions We appreciate your willingness to assist us in this important research.
We prioritize your privacy and confidentiality, ensuring that your consent is always obtained before any interaction Your identity will remain anonymous in all reports and publications, safeguarding you from identification Additionally, this research does not focus on your academic performance, so we will not gather any data regarding your grades.
We eagerly anticipate connecting with you throughout the year For additional information regarding the research, please reach out to GLJ at [email address] or CB at [email address].
Interview schedule
1 Why did you choose to take the taught (or research) Masters course at Cranfield?
2 How long have you been learning English?
3 What opportunities did you have to speak English in China? What opportunities did you have to write English in China?
4 Now speaking, reading, listening and writing English; what do you find easiest?
What do you find most difficult?
5 Why is it important for you to develop good English language?
Studying in English presents several challenges, including difficulties in reading comprehension, which can hinder understanding of complex texts Listening to lectures in English can be particularly challenging due to the pace and accents, making it hard to follow along Speaking English during group work or seminars often leads to anxiety and self-doubt, impacting participation Pronunciation issues can further complicate communication, while writing assignments in English may pose significant hurdles in terms of grammar and coherence Addressing these challenges is essential for academic success in an English-speaking environment.
7 How many times have you presented at the group design project meetings? (added 21.6.10)
8 How many times have you met with your research supervisor? (added 21.6.10)
9 What are you doing to improve your English?
10 What helps to improve your English?
11 What opportunities do you have to practice English outside the classroom?
Can you give me an example?
12 Where are you living? Do you share a house? Who do you share it with?
13 Have you made friends with any English-speaking students? Have you been to the
Student Union? Have you joined any student groups or societies?
14 Has your English improved since you started the course?
Interview data: Analytic framework
1 What age did they start to study English in China? How were they taught at secondary and tertiary levels? How was English proficiency assessed?
2 What opportunities did they have to use English in China a: at work and b: elsewhere?
Students at Cranfield encounter various challenges in studying in English, particularly related to language skills When comparing responses from those in taught courses to those in research courses, similarities emerge in the difficulties faced, such as academic writing and comprehension However, differences arise in the level of language proficiency required, with research students often reporting higher demands An analysis of individual responses against their IELTS scores reveals both agreements and discrepancies, highlighting the complexity of language acquisition Additionally, responses indicate a shift over time, suggesting that students may adapt and improve their English skills as they progress through their programs.
Students at Cranfield have ample opportunities to utilize English both in their coursework and through extra-curricular activities In the Cranfield course, students engage in various assignments, group projects, and presentations that enhance their language skills Additionally, extra-curricular contexts, such as clubs and workshops, provide further avenues for practicing English in informal settings Over time, students from different courses have reported varying levels of confidence and proficiency in English, reflecting the diverse experiences and engagement in both academic and social environments at Cranfield.
5 Describe the social/residential circumstances of the students and relate to items 4 and 5 above
6 Do students consider their English has improved? If so, how and why? Compare the responses of students on both courses Identify significant individual cases
7 Where relevant, compile a log of time spent by students using English a on the course and b outside the course
8 Standard of English speaking and pronunciation during the interview Compare students on the two courses Are students who are interviewed later more proficient at speaking and pronunciation?
9 Methodological issues such as the quality of interviewing Log any ‘double’ or leading questions, complexity of language and examine for any impact upon the responses
Consider how the interviewer–interviewee relationship might affect the data? Is there any evidence for this?
11 Finally, identify the main points emerging from the analysis.
Second interview schedule
1 Do you think your English has improved since coming to Cranfield?
2 How has it improved? a Listening b Speaking c Pronouncing d Reading e Writing
3 Why do you think your English has improved?
4 Do you have any difficulties using English?
5 Which English skills are you using on the course now, for instance, a Reading b Writing c Listening d Speaking
6 How much time are you spending using English on the course in a week?
7 Are you living with colleagues from the program?
8 When do you use English outside the course? a Talking to English speakers b Listening to TV/movies c Attending a weekly religious meeting d Any other occasions?
9 How much time are you spending using English outside the course in a week?
10 Have you made any friends with any non-Chinese students?
11 Do you use the CSA?
12 Do you use the sports hall?
13 What recommendations would you make to future AVIC students at Cranfield to improve their English?
Research diary questions
In the last week, please summarize the total time spent on your MSc course in English across various activities: a hours/minutes spent talking in English, b reading in English, c writing in English, and d listening to English during lectures.
(Please include all lectures, classes, group design project meetings and meetings with your supervisors.)
In the past week, please reflect on the time you dedicated outside of your MSc course to various English language activities Specifically, how many hours and minutes did you spend talking in English, reading English, writing in English, and listening to English through activities such as watching TV?
Research diary questionnaire
1 Please mark the correct statement below:
I am a MSc Research course student I am a MSc Taught course student
2 How many hours a day did you use English on your individual research project (thesis) last week? (Include reading papers, listening, speaking with your supervisor and writing your thesis.)
Please enter the answer here:
3 How many hours a day did you use English outside the MSc course last week? (Include reading newspapers, listening to TV, radio and movies, speaking and writing.)
Please enter the answer here:
4 Please rate your agreement with the statement below by marking the appropriate box
“I feel confident about writing/listening to/speaking/reading English.” *
Strongly agree agree Neither agree nor disagree disagree Strongly disagree
Thank you for completing the questionnaire
* this question varied each week according to the skill selected.
Questionnaire for supervisors of Masters theses
1 For how many years have you been supervising Masters theses?
When evaluating the feedback process, it is essential to assess the frequency with which I provide constructive criticism to my AVIC students regarding their English writing skills Additionally, it is important to recognize how the English language proficiency of my AVIC students impacts my supervisory responsibilities Lastly, I have significant concerns about the quality of written English in the Masters theses submitted by AVIC students.
When evaluating Masters theses, my approach to English language proficiency varies; I may choose to overlook language issues, deduct marks for significant deficiencies, or consistently penalize poor English Additionally, there may be other considerations that influence my grading process.
4 If you wish, please provide any further information that you feel may be relevant
Thank you for responding to the survey.