Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam.
Trang 1◆
NGUYEN QUANG KHAI
ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL
INTENTION: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE IN VIETNAM
PhD DISSERTATION
BUSINESS AND ADMINISTRATION
Trang 2◆
NGUYEN QUANG KHAI
ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL
INTENTION: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE IN VIETNAM
Specialization: BUSINESS AND ADMINISTRATION Specialization code: 9340101
PhD DISSERTATION
Supervisor: Prof Dr NGUYEN THI TUYET MAI
Trang 3DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is my own work, which I have never submitted for a degree at this or any other educational institutions I also certify that all of the dissertation’s references have been properly credited
I have read and comprehended the University’s policy on plagiarism and academic integrity violations With my own honor, I certify that this research was carried out by me and that it does not violate regulations of good academic practice
PhD candidate
(Signed)
Trang 4CONTENTS
DECLARATION i
CONTENTS ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iv
TABLE LIST vi
FIGURE LIST vii
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 8
1.1 Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention 8
1.1.1 Entrepreneurship 8
1.1.2 Entrepreneurial Intention 9
1.2 Research on Entrepreneurial Intention 10
1.3 Research Gaps 20
1.4 Research Questions 23
1.5 Theoretical Background 23
1.5.1 Entrepreneurial Learning Perspective 23
1.5.2 Theory of Planned Behavior 26
1.6 Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention 29
1.6.1 Entrepreneurial Education 29
1.6.2 Acculturation 30
1.6.3 Perception of Self 31
1.6.4 Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship 32
1.6.5 Prior Self-Employment Experience (PSE) 33
1.6.6 Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation 33
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 37
CHAPTER 2: STUDY 1- ANTECEDENTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION AMONG MASTER STUDENTS 38
2.1 Research Context of Student Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention 38
2.2 Hypothesis and Model 38
2.2.1 Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship (ATE) 38
2.2.2 The Role of Entrepreneurial Education (EE) 39
2.2.3 The Moderating Role of Prior Self-Employment Experience (PSE) 40
Trang 52.3 Methodology 42
2.3.1 Sample 42
2.3.2 Measures and Questionnaire Development 42
2.4 Research Results 43
2.4.1 Reliability and Validity of Scales 43
2.4.2 Descriptive Statistics of the Observed Variables of the Latent Variables in the Model 48
2.4.3 Structural Model Analyses 52
2.5 Discussion of the Results of Study 1 53
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 55
CHAPTER 3: STUDY 2- ANTECEDENTS OF EI AMONG ETHNIC MINORITIES IN MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS 56
3.1 Reasons for Studying Ethnic Minorities 56
3.2 Phase 1: Qualitative Study 56
3.2.1 Research Objectives 56
3.2.2 Research Method 56
3.2.3 Research Findings 59
3.3 Phase 2: Quantitative Study 64
3.3.1 Hypothesis and Research Model 64
3.3.2 Research Methods 69
3.3.3 Pilot Research 74
3.3.4 Research Results 79
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 105
CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 107
4.1 Discussion 107
4.1.1 Discussion on Study 2 Results 107
4.1.2 Discussion on the Overall Results of Study 1 and Study 2 110
4.2 Implications 112
4.3 Contributions, Limitations and Future Research Directions 113
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4 117
CONCLUSION 118
LIST OF PUBLISHED WORKS 120
REFERENCES 121
Trang 6LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations Full Name
ATB Attitude Toward Behavior
ATE Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship
AVE Average Variance Extracted
BC Book Chapter
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CP Conference Proceeding
CR Composite Reliability
DI Dissertation
EE Entrepreneurial Education
EEP Entrepreneurial Education Program
EEM Entrepreneurial Event Model
EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis
EI Entrepreneurial Intention
IEM Indigenous Ethnic Minority
EM Ethnic Minority
EO Entrepreneurial Orientation
ESE Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy
INT Intention
INO Innovativeness
IEO Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation
JA Journal Article
MS Perception of Modern Self
MSV Maximum Shared Variance
PA Propensity to Act
PBC Perceived Behavioral Control
Trang 7Abbreviations Full Name
PF Perceived Feasibility
PRO Proactiveness
PSE Prior Self-Employment Experience
RQ Research Question
RT Risk-Taking
SEM Structural Equation Modeling
SN Subjective Norm
TPB Theory of Planned Behavior
Trang 8TABLE LIST
Table 1.1: Main Themes and Sub-categories in Entrepreneurial Intention Research 11
Table 1.2: Entrepreneurial Intention Studies in Vietnam 19
Table 2.1: The Second Cronbach’s Alpha of Study 1 44
Table 2.2: KMO and Bartlett’s Test 45
Table 2.3: Total Variance Explained 45
Table 2.4: Pattern Matrix 46
Table 2.5: Standardized Regression Weights: Group Number 1—Default Model 47
Table 2.6: Correlation Matrix, Construct Reliability and Discriminant Validity 48
Table 2.7: Descriptive Statistics, Entrepreneurial Intention 48
Table 2.8: Descriptive Statistics, Attitude toward Entrepreneurship 50
Table 2.9: Descriptive Statistics, Entrepreneurial Education 51
Table 3.1: The Characteristics of the Subjects 58
Table 3.2: TPB Scales in Entrepreneurship 70
Table 3.3: Unidimensional Acculturation Scale 72
Table 3.4: TS and MS Scale 73
Table 3.5: IEO Scale 74
Table 3.6: EFA of Pilot Research 75
Table 3.7: Scale Reliability – Pilot Research 77
Table 3.8: KMO and Bartlett’s Test 79
Table 3.9: Coefficients of Eigenvalues and Extracted Variance 80
Table 3.10: EFA 81
Table 3.11: Scale Reliability 87
Table 3.12: CFA and Model Fit Indicators 91
Table 3.13: Reliability, Convergent and Discriminant Validity 92
Table 3.14: Descriptive Statistics of Entrepreneurial Intention 93
Table 3.15: Descriptive Statistics of Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship 94
Table 3.16: Descriptive Statistics of Acculturation 95
Table 3.17: Descriptive Statistics of Perception of Traditional Self 96
Table 3.18: Descriptive Statistics of Perception of Modern Self 97
Table 3.19: Descriptive Statistics of Risk-Taking 98
Table 3.20: Descriptive Statistics of Innovativeness 99
Table 3.21: Descriptive Statistics of Proactiveness 100
Table 3.22: SEM Model Fit Indicator 101
Table 3.23: Results of Hypothesis Testing 101
Table 3.24: Results of the Moderating Effect of PSE on ACC and EI 103
Trang 9FIGURE LIST
Figure 2.1: Graphic Depiction of the Conceptual Framework 41
Figure 2.2: CFA Analysis 47
Figure 2.3: Structural Model 52
Figure 2.4: Research Model 69
Figure 2.5: CFA 92
Trang 10INTRODUCTION
1 Rationale
Research on entrepreneurship is increasingly interested in practice because it is the basis of the economic development and happiness of countries (Kao, 1993) The interest in entrepreneurship in practice has attracted researchers to focus on this topic to elucidate relevant theories, thereby underpinning managers’ decisions (Nguyen et al., 2019a).Maalaoui et al (2018) has affirmed that the field of entrepreneurship studies is a large area of research and there is still much to investigate, such as the influence of culture, the expansion of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and the study of the transition from intention to action
Trang 11Section II.2.c of Resolution 35/2016/NQ-CP has pointed out that an important way to increase the number of enterprises in Vietnam is through the promotion of training programs for startups (Government, 2016) This solution is consistent with the theory of entrepreneurial learning However, the effectiveness of this solution depends on many factors, including the role that entrepreneurial learning plays in the entrepreneurial intention of Vietnamese people Past research has suggested that entrepreneurship is a learning process, and learning shapes entrepreneurial behaviors (Rae and Carswell, 2001) It is also noted that all theories of entrepreneurship are associated with entrepreneurial learning (Minniti and Bygrave, 2001) Many researchers agree that potential entrepreneurs can learn entrepreneurship through experience (Rae and Carswell, 2001) even if they have never started a business (Hahn et al., 2017) Potential entrepreneurs can learn entrepreneurship through entrepreneurial education programs (Hahn et al., 2017) or contextual learning (Rae, 2005) Hahn et al (2017) assert that students benefit not just because they are instructed how to start a business; they benefit from an entrepreneurial education by being shown how to turn their ideas into action
This ability helps individuals to be more creative and more confident in the jobs they undertake, which is the most important human capacity (Hahn et al., 2017) Meanwhile, learning entrepreneurship through contextual learning helps potential entrepreneurs learn the “art” of entrepreneurial practice, something entrepreneurial education can hardly provide (Rae, 2005) Although each of the above learning methods will have different advantages and disadvantages, to the best of my knowledge there does not seem to be much research addressing the suitability of these learning paths in different contexts Meanwhile, in the context of startup activity in Vietnam, the people starting new businesses can be very different from each other Potential entrepreneurs may be people with high education and easy access to entrepreneurial education programs; they may also be people with low education and no easy access to startup training programs Therefore, research on entrepreneurship topics such as antecedents of entrepreneurial intention from a learning perspective for different groups of people is essential and useful
Trang 13Based on the above discussion, author decided to work on the research topic “Antecedents of entrepreneurial intention: Empirical evidence in Vietnam” for my dissertation This dissertation focuses on exploring some antecedents of entrepreneurial intention in Vietnam from the perspective of entrepreneurial learning through entrepreneurial education, acculturation, and past experience of self-employment, especially for the young, highly educated (i.e., master students) and ethnic minority groups The research results show that entrepreneurial learning plays an important role in entrepreneurial intention For the target group of master students, entrepreneurial education has been suggested to play an important role in shaping the intention to start a business However, the previous findings are inconsistent and there is a call for further investigation For the ethnic-minority groups author studied in the northern region of Vietnam The results of my qualitative research show that entrepreneurial education may not play an important role in their entrepreneurial intentions Instead, an entrepreneurial learning process through contextual learning plays a more significant role in fostering their entrepreneurial intentions In particular, acculturation plays an important role as a prerequisite for these ethnic minorities’ contextual learning, shaping their attitudes towards entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial behavior Specifically, individuals with a high degree of acculturation with Kinh people (cultural and exchanges and personal experiences with Kinh people) are more likely to support entrepreneurial activities and have high entrepreneurial intentions In addition, self-concepts (i.e., “traditional self” and “modern self”) that are specifically associated with Asian transition economies such as Vietnam and attitude towards entrepreneurship can also be seen to influence entrepreneurial intention Furthermore, the research results also suggest that personal factors such as individual entrepreneurial orientation (IEO, i.e., risk-taking, proactiveness, and innovativeness) have significant impact on ethnic minorities’ willingness to start a business Both Study 1 and Study 2 suggest that past experience of self-employment is a significant moderator of the relationship between an entrepreneurial learning factor (i.e., entrepreneurial education in Study 1 and acculturation in Study 2) and entrepreneurial intention
The research results as described in this dissertation have made some significant contributions, as follows:
From a theoretical perspective: Based on the perspective of entrepreneurial
Trang 14ethnic minorities, contextual learning through acculturation is a crucial predictor of entrepreneurial intention In addition, my research indicates that prior self-employment experience has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between the learning factor and EI Furthermore, this dissertation also includes research that explored the influence of important personal factors such as self-concept (i.e., perception of “traditional self” and perception of “modern self”) and individual entrepreneurial orientations (IEO) on entrepreneurial intention Finally, this dissertation is one of the rare studies to investigate the entrepreneurial intentions and its antecedents among indigenous ethnic minorities, who seem to have not received enough attention in any prior research
From a practical perspective: based on the research results, the dissertation
provides some policy implications that are suitable in the Vietnamese context, thereby promoting the startup movement and contributing to the goal of one million businesses in Vietnam
2 Research Objectives, Objects and Scope of the Research
2.1 Research Objectives
The dissertation’s overall objective is to investigate the main antecedents of entrepreneurial intention in Vietnam (focusing on the two important groups of master students and ethnic minorities), through the lens of entrepreneurial learning perspective and theory of planned behavior Based on the research results, the dissertation is expected to provide some implications regarding promoting the entrepreneurial intention of individuals in Vietnam The dissertation aims to achieve the following specific objectives:
- To examine the role of entrepreneurial learning in forming entrepreneurial intention, focusing on the role of entrepreneurial education and prior self-employed experience
- Explore factors driving entrepreneurial intention from the entrepreneurial learning perspective
- To develop and test the research model pertaining to the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention among a group of ethnic minority people in Vietnam, with the focus on the role of acculturation, prior self-employed experience, and some other personal factors
Trang 152.2 Research Objects
The main research objects of this dissertation are the antecedents of (i.e., driving factors) the intention to start a business in Vietnam, and their impact on entrepreneurial intention
2.3 Research Scope
Research context: In this dissertation, from the lens of entrepreneurial learning
perspective and TPB, two main studies were conducted on two important groups of Vietnamese people Specifically, Study 1 examines the role of entrepreneurial education and prior self-employed experience in forming entrepreneurial intention among master students, while Study 2 investigates antecedents of entrepreneurial intention, focusing on the role of acculturation, prior self-employed experience and some other personal factors, among ethnic minorities in northern provinces of Vietnam
Scope of content: The study aims to explore and examine the factors affecting the
entrepreneurial intention of Vietnamese people from the perspective of entrepreneurial learning theory In which, Entrepreneurship is the scholarly examination of how, by whom, and with what effects opportunities for future goods and services are to be discovered, evaluated, and exploited
Research space: To study the topic among master students in Study 1, the
research was conducted on students studying in master programs at universities in Vietnam For Study 2, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from ethnic minority people in 10 mountainous provinces in the north of Vietnam
Research period: Primary data (qualitative and survey data) was collected from
2020 to 2021; the study also employed secondary data from the years 2014 to 2021
3 Research Methodology
To achieve the stated objectives, the dissertation uses both qualitative and quantitative research approaches Specifically, the quantitative approach was used in Study 1, and mixed methods were used in Study 2
In the first study, the research subjects are master students The study uses a
Trang 16The second study includes two phases The dissertation used a qualitative
research method in the first phase (in-depth interviews) to explore the factors driving EI of ethnic minorities, especially acculturation, prior self-employed experience and some other personal factors using in-depth interview research method, author interviewed 12 ethnic minorities in two provinces representing the northern mountainous provinces of Cao Bang and Bac Kan
In Phase 2, a survey was conducted on 451 people from ten different ethnic-minority groups, collected from ten northern mountainous provinces The study was based on the Entrepreneurial Learning Perspective, and the Theory of Planned Behavior (emphasizing the relationship between attitude and behavioral intention) as theoretical background Structural Equation Modeling was used to test all the hypothesized relationships in the research model
4 Structure of the Dissertation
In addition to its Introduction, References and Appendices, the dissertation includes four main chapters
Chapter 1: Literature Review and Theoretical Background In this chapter, author introduce the key concepts such as entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial intention, and the antecedents of EI This chapter also presents the theories employed in the dissertation as theoretical background
Chapter 2: Study 1- Antecedents of EI among Master Students In this chapter, author present my study of the factors affecting entrepreneurial intention among master students, employing the entrepreneurial learning perspective as background
Chapter 3: Study 2- Antecedents of EI among Ethnic Minorities (EM) in Vietnam’s Mountainous Regions This chapter describes the study’s two main phases First, author introduce qualitative research to explore the factors affecting the intention of ethnic minorities to start a business Next, quantitative research (i.e., a survey) was conducted to estimate the influence of factors on the entrepreneurial intention among ethnic minorities in the northern mountainous areas of Vietnam
Trang 17CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1 Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention
1.1.1 Entrepreneurship
The contribution of entrepreneurship to economic growth has drawn more academic attention in the 21st century Therefore, researchers are increasingly interested in discovering what entrepreneurship requires, what factors affect it, and its economic, social, and political impact on individuals and society in general (Howorth et al., 2005) Entrepreneurship was regarded by Kao (1993) as a process of doing something new and original in order to create personal property and add value to society (Kao, 1993) Schumpeter (1934) identified that entrepreneurship played a very important role in economic development Entrepreneurial behavior generates greater well-being, economic development, and quality of life in countries (Contreras-Barraza et al., 2022) Various other definitions have been given by different academic commentators Each has described the features of entrepreneurship and of entrepreneurs, such as drive and other elements, based on their individual understanding of the concept
Currently, the word “start-up” has not been clearly defined in Vietnamese Law Even in the law that is closest to start-up activities such as The Law supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (2017), does not provide a specific definition of a start-up The Vietnamese dictionary of Hoang Phe et al (2003) also simply defines "entrepreneurship as starting a career" Therefore, this thesis will use the concept of entrepreneurship widely accepted in academic research
Trang 18whereby entrepreneurship is considered the power that prompts everyone to make use of creativity and innovation to search for solutions in a dynamic business climate Moreover, the definition offered by Stevenson and Jerillo-Mossi in 1986 describes the concept as related to the motivation to take advantage of available resources to seal a detected market gap, one that the businessman regards as a worth-exploiting business opportunity (Stevenson and Jarrillo-Mossi, 1986)
As a way of agreeing with the definition of Stevenson and Jarrillo-Mossi that grasping existing market opportunities is an essential foundation of business activity, Adams et al (2016) highlight the necessity for an entrepreneur to utilize innovation, foresight, and specific leadership to recognize possible market opportunities and develop effective business strategies (Adams et al., 2016) Unlike Hisrich et al (2016), they argue that entrepreneurship is a psychological mindset embodied by an enterprising individual Also, it is a delineation that the entrepreneur deems requisite for building value in a scarce and unstable environment (Hisrich et al., 2016) Above are notions of entrepreneurship given by various scholars, who nevertheless agree on its relevance and impact on the economic strength of a country
Although there are numerous concepts of entrepreneurship (Popov et al., 2019), it appears that Shane and Venkataraman’s (2000) definition is the most detailed while also being the most well-known (Popov et al., 2019) According to Shane and Venkataraman, entrepreneurship is the scholarly examination of how, by whom, and with what effects opportunities for future goods and services are to be discovered, evaluated, and exploited (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000) According to this definition, entrepreneurship is the process by which a person or organization identifies, assesses, and takes advantage of chances to introduce goods, services, procedures, and techniques to enter new markets (Popov et al., 2019) author will use Shane and Venkataraman’s concept of entrepreneurship in both the dissertation and the questionnaire he will use to interview the research subjects
1.1.2 Entrepreneurial Intention
Trang 19purposely plans to carry out acts to achieve it in the future According to Thompson (2009), entrepreneurial intention is not a binary decision of yes or no; instead, it expands along a continuum ranging from a preference for self-employment over paid-employee work to a commitment to an entrepreneurial venture finally to nascent entrepreneurship The process of venture creation is referred to as the final stage in entrepreneurial intention formation and was the transition from commitment to creating an organization (Reynolds et al., 2005; Zwan et al., 2010) These activities include building social and financial capital, planning for equipment and facilities, shaping and refining an idea for a new product or service, and gathering knowledge by attending seminars on entrepreneurship (Aldrich and Martinez, 2000; Korunka et al., 2003; McGee et al., 2009; Reynolds, 1997) Some other scholars have defined entrepreneurship as a process and entrepreneurial intention as the first step of venture creation (Nishantha, 2018)
However, Liñán’s (2004) concept of entrepreneurial intention seems to have received the most attention This is a definition built on the basis of the widely accepted definition of behavioral intention by researchers Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), behavioral intention is defined as an individual’s effort to perform a certain action Based on Fishbein and Ajzen’s definition, Liñán (2004) defines entrepreneurial intention as a measure of personal effort spent on performing business behavior, which is also the definition that the author uses in this dissertation Later, based on this concept, Liñán and Chen (2009) developed scale measuring entrepreneurial intention
According to psychological studies, the best indicator of planned behavior is intention (Ajzen, 1991) Studies have indicated that entrepreneurial intentions are among the best predictors of new business starts because entrepreneurs often start with intention before starting their business (Krueger et al., 2000) Since there is a high correlation between entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurship, as demonstrated and verified by several empirical investigations, many scholars contend that this relationship exists (Krueger et al., 2000)
1.2 Research on Entrepreneurial Intention
Trang 20Table 1.1: Main Themes and Sub-categories in Entrepreneurial Intention Research
No Main Themes Sub-Categories Number of
Papers
1 Core entrepreneurial intention model
General test of the theory 23
Specific intentions 18
New theoretical framework 9
Additional variables 5 Configuration of motivational antecedents 7 Methodology 3 2 Personal-lever variables Background factors 35 Personality/psychological factors 72 Gender issues 30 Specific subsamples 8 Perceived barriers 3 3 Entrepreneurial education Characteristics of participants 8
Entrepreneurial education program
results 13
Entrepreneurial education program
evaluation 30 Comparisons 6 Program proposal 11 4 Role of context Cross-cultural studies 25 Institutional variables 40 Cultural backgrounds 6 Ecological approach 1 5 Intention-behavior link Longitudinal studies 24
Variables affecting the process 15
6 New research areas
Social entrepreneurship intention 7
Sustainable entrepreneurship intention 4
Others 6
Trang 21In the research classification of Liñán and Fayolle (2015), the theme “general test of the theory” has 23 studies This theme includes studies that test the fit of a theoretical model, mainly TPB or EEM, using different samples, such as high school students, university students, or the general population Four studies compare and/or integrate both models Studies have shown that TPB and EEM are suitable models to explain the entrepreneurial intention
The theme “specific intentions” has 18 studies This theme includes studies on specific intentions in entrepreneurial intention, such as the intention to grow, the intention to exit, the intention to internationalize, and corporate entrepreneurial intention Several other studies compare alternative entrepreneurial intentions, such as the intention to grow versus independence intentions and the intention to start various types of ventures
The theme “new theoretical framework” has nine studies This theme gathers studies looking at alternatives to older models (TPB and EEM) This theme also considers significant modifications of the established models grouped Some proposed theories or ideas include expectancy theory; social cognitive career theory; distinction between impulsive and deliberate entrepreneurial intentions; and the intention/action/ circumstance condition as a new path to studying entrepreneurship
The theme “additional variables” has five studies Since models often explain only 40% to 60% of the variation in entrepreneurial intention, several studies have suggested additional variables, such as the proclivity for improvisation The remaining studies are empirical
The theme “configuration of motivational antecedents” has seven studies Other studies on entrepreneurial intention often assume that independent variables directly explain entrepreneurial intention Therefore, the authors studying this theme have suggested alternative configurations such as mediation; moderator; the interaction between desirability; and feasibility
The theme “methodology” has three studies These studies focus on concept development and scale
Trang 22The theme “background factors” has 35 studies The studies grouped under this theme analyze the role of several situations, which are usually family background, education, and experience—for example, a parent’s occupation, the family’s business background, educational background, experience, and its social capital
The theme “gender issues” has 30 studies which mainly analyze the influence of gender on entrepreneurial intention
The theme “specific subsamples” has eight studies, which focus on particular subgroups of populations, such as secondary-school students, Dutch farmers, or indigenous Turkish entrepreneurs
The theme “perceived barriers” has only three studies, which are quite general, examining the effect of such factors as lack of capital, lack of skills, and operational problems on entrepreneurial intention
The theme “characteristics of participants” has eight studies, which focus on studying students’ characteristics in entrepreneurial education programs
The theme “entrepreneurial education program (EEP) results” has 13 studies These studies focus on analyzing the influence of entrepreneurial education programs on entrepreneurial intention Most researchers with this focus investigate the entrepreneurial intention of participants and non-participants in entrepreneurial education programs and then attribute this result to the program Only one seven-year study by Degeorge and Fayolle (2008) assessed the change of entrepreneurial intention before and after joining the entrepreneurial education program
The “EEP Evaluation” theme has 30 studies, which aim to evaluate specific EEPs and whether they impact participants’ entrepreneurial intention Most of the studies show a positive effect of EEPs on entrepreneurial intention In addition, some also show the moderating role of prior exposure to entrepreneurship on the influence of entrepreneurial education on entrepreneurial intention
The theme “comparisons” has six studies, which compare different groups of people participating in EEPs These groups can vary by country, regions within a country, or schools in a single location
The theme “program proposal” has 11 studies Research on this topic often proposes some content and pedagogical method to improve EEP
Trang 23compared two countries; some recent studies have extended the sample to six, seven, 12, or even 13 countries
The theme “institutional variables” has 40 studies The studies in this theme analyze the role of “the rules of the game” in an organization or milieu influencing entrepreneurial intention Organizations and milieus commonly studied include universities, social networks, regional contexts, the media representation of entrepreneurs, and culture
The theme “cultural backgrounds” has six studies that focus on the influence of the new cultural environment on entrepreneurial intention The impact of cultural changes on entrepreneurial intention often occurs with immigrants, international students, or students of different ethnic backgrounds in the same country
The theme “ecological approach” has just one study The only research on this topic affirms that “environmental munificence promotes entrepreneurial alertness which, in turn, increases entrepreneurial intention.” (Liñán and Fayolle, 2015),
The theme “longitudinal studies” has 24 studies Studies on this topic suggest that tracked responses over time are useful for analyzing intention-behavior links and entrepreneurial processes Therefore, some studies on this topic focus on the relationship between entrepreneurial intention and behavior in the long run Others focus on explaining venture growth or test alternative theories, such as career decision-making, the intentionality, resources, boundary, and exchange theory, or the interaction between people, processes, resources, and the environment
The theme “variables affecting” the process has 15 studies The studies under this theme study entrepreneurship from the perspective of a process in which entrepreneurial intention still plays a significant role Some studies focus on specific aspects and their influence on entrepreneurial stages, such as barriers to growth and/or the decreasing influence of personality traits
The remaining topics are “social entrepreneurship intention” (comprising seven studies), “sustainable entrepreneurship intention” (four studies), and “others” (six studies); these focus on the intention towards particular entrepreneurial activities, such as social entrepreneurship intention, sustainable entrepreneurship intention, the transgenerational intent in family business leaders, the valuation of opportunities, and the entrepreneurial commitment (Liñán and Fayolle, 2015)
Trang 24The results of Donaldson’s classification confirm that Liñán and Fayolle’s 2015 framework is helpful for research into entrepreneurial intention (Donaldson, 2019) The framework of Liñán and Fayolle’s research themes (2015) shows that studies on the learning of potential entrepreneurs mainly focus on entrepreneurial education However, entrepreneurial education programs are usually only designed for individuals who already have a certain level of education For individuals with low levels of education or who can’t even read and write (for example, ethnic minorities in the northern mountains of Vietnam), it seems that entrepreneurial education is not for them In addition, Rae (2005) affirmed that entrepreneurial education is essential and valuable in providing knowledge about entrepreneurship However, “the ‘art’ of entrepreneurial practice is learned experientially in business rather than the educational environment” (Rae, 2005) Meanwhile, the classification results of Liñán and Fayolle (2015) and Donaldson (2019) seem to indicate that there is no empirical study addressing learning experientially
Current research on entrepreneurial intention in Vietnam, to the best of my knowledge, also seems to be very limited in its consideration of the role of entrepreneurial education and learning experientially Here are some studies on entrepreneurial intention in Vietnam:
Trang 28Table 1.2: Entrepreneurial Intention Studies in Vietnam
No Authors (year) Subject
Factors
ATE SN PBC PSE EEN PFE PT PP DE CR ATM SoN EE Gov
_Po FS SoP SoC ESE RD ND MF EV NB PE PR
1 Nguyen (2015) Student X X X
2 Mai and Nguyen (2016) Student X X X X X
3 Nguyen et al (2016) Student X X X
4 Phong et al (2020) Student X X X X
5 Nguyen et al (2019) Young
people X X X X X X X X X 6 Nasar et al (2019) Student X X X
7 Doanh (2019) Student X X X X X X X X
8 Nguyen et al (2020) Student X X X X X X
9 Nguyen et al (2021) Student X X X X
10 Duong (2021) Student X X X X X X X X
11 Dao et al (2021) Student X X X X X X X
12 Loan (2022) Master
Student X X X 13 Bui and Pham (2022) Young
people X X X
ATE: attitude toward entrepreneurship; SN: subjective norm; PBC: perceived behavioral control; PSE: prior entrepreneurial experience, EEN: external environment; PFE: perceived feasibility; PT: personal trait; PP: proactive personality; DE: desire for success and challenge; CR: creativity; ATM: attitude toward money; SoN:
social norms; EE: entrepreneurship education; Gov_Po: government's supportive policies; FS: family support; SoP: society support; SoC: social capital; ESE: entrepreneurial self-efficacy; RD: regulatory dimension; ND: normative dimension; MF: mindfulness; EV: Expected value; NB: Normative belief; PE: Perceived self-efficacy;
Trang 291.3 Research Gaps
The review of research studies on entrepreneurial intention in the world and in Vietnam in particular show that previous studies on entrepreneurial intention often focus on entrepreneurial education and training These studies have not paid much attention to the entrepreneurial learning of potential entrepreneurs This may be due to the fact that previous studies often used students as their sample due to the convenience of finding students to sample (Donaldson, 2019) Meanwhile, access to entrepreneurial education programs often requires potential entrepreneurs to have a certain level of education This situation raises the following questions:
First, what is the role of entrepreneurial education in other research samples (e.g., in ethnic minorities, who often have low levels of education and have difficulty accessing entrepreneurial education programs)? and the role of entrepreneurial education varies among different audiences (master's students and ethnic minorities) in the same research context (countries with economies in transition)?
Second, if entrepreneurial education is not suitable for the ethnic-minorities study sample, what factors will play a substitute role in their learning to become entrepreneurs?
Third, what factors will influence the ethnic minorities’ learning to become entrepreneurs?
According to Rae (2005), a potential entrepreneur can accumulate entrepreneurial knowledge and experience through entrepreneurial education programs or entrepreneurial learning Rae (2005) proposed “the triadic model of entrepreneurial learning” with three main pillars of entrepreneurial learning, including personal and social emergence, the negotiated enterprise, and contextual learning While access to entrepreneurial education programs often requires potential entrepreneurs to have a certain level of education, participating in entrepreneurial learning is often simpler For example, potential entrepreneurs can contextual learn through “participation in community, industry and other networks in which individual experiences are related, compared, and shared meaning is constructed” and “develop intuition and the ability to recognize opportunities.” (Rae, 2005)
Trang 30(Evansluong et al., 2019) from the broader market of the Kinh Moreover, some previous researchers have also confirmed that acculturation has an important role and needs to be studied more fully in research on entrepreneurship (e.g., Nwankwo, 2005; Robertson & Grant, 2016) “Acculturation is likely to have a determinant effect on the success of ethnic entrepreneurship—another area that deserves further probing" (Nwankwo, 2005) Acculturation of immigrants to the indigenous culture affects their business behavior (Robertson and Grant, 2016) and entrepreneurial skills (Abodohoui et al., 2020)
On the other hand, although numerous studies have focused on and have widely accepted the role of culture in entrepreneurship, previous studies seem to have not paid due attention to the role of acculturation Several previous studies have addressed the effect of acculturation on behavior or the intention to perform the behavior, such as violent behavior (Tahira et al., 2019), use of condoms (Ebrahim et al., 2016), purchase behavior (Kizgin et al., 2018), and exclusively breastfeeding behavior (Mendoza et al., 2016) The studies on entrepreneurship that refer to acculturation are, to my knowledge, still very limited The above arguments show the potential of acculturation in studies of entrepreneurship behavior, and studies in this area should explore the role of acculturation in intention as well as entrepreneurship behavior
In addition, similar to the role of acculturation in entrepreneurship research, the role of some distinguishing factors of people in countries with transition economies, such as perception of traditional self (TS) and perception of modern self (MS), has not yet been received enough attention in the research field of entrepreneurial intention, although TS and MS have also been proven to have influential roles in studies on the behavior of individuals in countries with transition economies (e.g., Vietnam, China), such as on consumption behavior, ethnocentrism in behavior (Nguyen et al., 2009), and organic food purchase behavior (Nguyen et al., 2019b; Nguyen et al., 2018) Therefore, in the context of research in Vietnam, a country with a transitional economy, TS and MS may play an essential role in research in general individual behavior and, in particular, in individuals’ entrepreneurship behavior
Trang 312015) A number of studies have confirmed the role of individual entrepreneurial orientation to entrepreneurship behavior Research by Forcadell and Úbeda (2020) has shown that individual entrepreneurial orientation positively affects international entrepreneurship (Forcadell and Úbeda, 2020) Research by Martins and Perez (2020) also confirms that individual entrepreneurial orientation positively affects the entrepreneurial intention of Colombian students (Martins and Perez, 2020) Therefore, more researchers have begun to focus increasingly on entrepreneurial orientation areas at the individual level (Bolton and Lane, 2012; Fayolle and Liñán, 2014) However, studies in Vietnam do not seem to have paid much attention to these antecedents of entrepreneurial intention Although there have been some studies that have mentioned some aspects similar to the components of IEO, for example proactive personality (e.g., Phong et al., 2020), creativity (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021), it can be said that studies in Vietnam that comprehensively examine the influence of IEO on entrepreneurial intention are still rare
Based on the literature review and the above discussion, several research gaps can be identified:
• Despite the important role of acculturation in the entrepreneurship research domain as discussed above, the impact of acculturation on entrepreneurial intention has not received enough attention, especially from the perspective of learning This calls for more research efforts to investigate the role of acculturation in relation to entrepreneurship
• There is a lack of empirical evidence on the role of entrepreneurial education as an important component of entrepreneurial learning in shaping entrepreneurial intention
• The extant literature has suggested the significant role of individual difference variables such as self-concept in shaping an individual’s behaviors In the context of entrepreneurship, the impact of self-concept as an important factor driving entrepreneurial behaviors has been neglected Moreover, to the author’s knowledge the role of traditional self and modern self, important and interesting individual difference variables that are specifically associated with the Asian transitional economies, has not been investigated in research on entrepreneurial behaviors in Vietnam This dissertation aims to fill in this gap by examining the role of TS and MS in the entrepreneurial research model
Trang 32have not paid enough attention to the role of these factors This dissertation aims to fill in this gap by examining the role of IEO in the entrepreneurial research model
• The attitudes and behaviors of indigenous ethnic minorities have rarely been examined or only given very modest research attention in previous studies; most previous studies on minorities have often targeted immigrants rather than indigenous ethnic populations Meanwhile, these two groups have relatively different characteristics The study of indigenous ethnic minorities, especially in the context of entrepreneurship, is an important and intriguing topic This dissertation, in addition to examining factors influencing master students’ entrepreneurial intention, investigates antecedents of EI among ethnic minorities in Vietnam, an emerging economy
1.4 Research Questions
This dissertation aims to address the following research questions to achieve the research objectives:
RQ1: What are the key antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions from the entrepreneurial learning perspective in the context of Vietnam?
RQ2: Do and how entrepreneurial education and prior self-employed experience play roles in shaping entrepreneurial intentions of Vietnamese, specifically those of master students?
RQ3: Do and how acculturation and prior self-employed experience play roles in shaping entrepreneurial intention of ethnic minorities?
In addition, do self-concept (i.e., traditional self and modern self) as well as individual entrepreneurial orientation (innovativeness, risk taking and proactiveness) have an impact on the intention to start a business among ethnic minorities?
1.5 Theoretical Background
In this dissertation, author employ the Entrepreneurial Learning Perspective as a theoretical background to investigate antecedents of entrepreneurial intention In addition, to serve the specific purposes of the dissertation, author also take the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB model) into consideration (examining the important link between attitude – behavioural intention)
1.5.1 Entrepreneurial Learning Perspective
Trang 332014), transforming entrepreneurial learning from one of the most understudied areas of study (Harrison and Leitch, 2005) to an accepted and integral part of entrepreneurship (Tseng, 2013) This demonstrates not only a good response to calls for a better understanding of learning in entrepreneurship but also a recognition within the field of entrepreneurship research that effective learning has a significant positive impact on entrepreneurs’ success and achievement (Soetanto, 2017; Rae and Carswell, 2001) It also supports the widely held belief that “entrepreneurship is a process of learning, and a theory of entrepreneurship requires a theory of learning” (Minniti and Bygrave, 2001) The change “from a static perspective, i.e., a trait-based approach, to a dynamic view, i.e., a learning-based approach” (Secundo et al., 2017) of entrepreneurship has been aided by increased attention to entrepreneurial learning A static, trait-based approach to entrepreneurship asserts that entrepreneurs have fixed personality traits and characteristics that allow them to be entrepreneurs, whereas a learning approach allows for a dynamic view of the entrepreneur, affirming that entrepreneurs are developed rather than fixed (Secundo et al., 2017) This implies that entrepreneurs acquire and develop their entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, and abilities over time, and portrays the entrepreneur as flexible and dynamic (Secundo et al., 2017)
Up to now, many researchers have proposed different concepts of entrepreneurial learning Entrepreneurial learning is defined as “the acquisition and development of the propensity, skills, and abilities to find, join, or grow a venture” (Hamilton, 2011) and “the acquisition or alteration of skills, knowledge, habits, and necessary attitudes to deal with all aspects of running a business” (van Gelderen et al., 2005) Rae (2005) redefined entrepreneurial learning, proposing that it means learning to recognize and act on opportunities and social interaction to initiate, organize and manage ventures (Rae, 2005) Thus, although there are many different views on entrepreneurial learning,
researchers all agree that entrepreneurial learning is the equipping of the potential entrepreneur with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes for him or her to recognize and act on opportunities and social interactions to initiate, organize and manage ventures This is the concept of entrepreneurial learning that author use in my
dissertation
Trang 34outcomes, implying that learning is intentional and can aid in the solution of predefined problems Informal learning, on the other hand, is usually learner-directed and occurs in ordinary situations (context) with little or no structure (design) (Marsick and Watkins, 2015) Such learning can be beneficial since it occurs when it is desired, eliminating the need for the learner to wait for a formalized program to become available The learner’s level of intention can then be used to further classify informal learning While some informal learning has a high level of intention because the learner chooses to learn something or some skill in particular, incidental learning has a very low level of intention and is considered as a byproduct of other activities (Marsick and Watkins, 2015; Coetzer et al., 2017) Eraut (2000) divides learning into three categories: implicit (no aim to learn), reactive (various levels of intent), and deliberate (high level of intention to learn) Entrepreneurs are believed to prefer informal learning since they “typically do not have the financial resources or the time to engage in much formalized training” (Coetzer et al., 2017; Keith et al., 2016) Brett et al (2012, p 126) agree, stating that an entrepreneur's top concern is “the day-to-day operation of the actual firm,” and that due to time restrictions, entrepreneurs rely on their own experiences It’s also suggested that this learning is unintentional rather than purposeful (Cope and Watts, 2000) This does not, however, imply that all entrepreneurial learning is informal; entrepreneurs may participate in formal learning programs as well
Trang 35entrepreneurship.” However, the “art” of entrepreneurial practice is learned experientially in business rather than in the educational environment (Rae, 2005) Rae (2005) proposed “the triadic model of entrepreneurial learning,” which includes personal and social emergence, the negotiated enterprise, and contextual learning; contextual learning includes learning through immersion within the industry, practical theories of entrepreneurial action, and opportunity recognition through cultural participation (Rae, 2005) Therefore, it can be concluded that contextual learning is suitable for a wider audience because this method does not require learners to be formally trained, nor does it require training facilities such as schools or libraries
In this present study, with the research object being master students, the entrepreneurial education variable will play a key role affecting the factors in the model Since master students are linguistically competent, it is relatively easy for them to participate in entrepreneurial education programs In addition, they are also trained and educated more formally, so entrepreneurial education programs seem to be more suitable for them (Seikkula-Leino et al., 2021) In contrast, ethnic minorities in the northern mountainous areas of Vietnam often have low levels of education, and some of them do not even know the official Vietnamese language (the Kinh language), or they can speak it but not use the language to read Meanwhile, books about business in general and entrepreneurship in particular in Vietnam are mostly written in Vietnamese, so the participation of ethnic minorities in entrepreneurial education programs in particular and entrepreneurial learning in general seems to be unfeasible This can be solved if ethnic minorities acculturate with Kinh people, which can affect their entrepreneurial learning in two ways First, through the acculturation process they will be more fluent in Vietnamese and find it easier to participate in formal entrepreneurial education programs Second, acculturation will help them to deeply participate in Kinh society, have more relationships and be able to learn entrepreneurship from these relationships (Rae and Carswell, 2000) In another words, acculturation is considered as a factor of contextual learning Therefore, in the study of the entrepreneurial intention of ethnic minorities, the acculturation factor will be included as the key antecedent of entrepreneurial intention in the model
1.5.2 Theory of Planned Behavior
Trang 36was a crucial awareness process model for assessing entrepreneurial intention (Koe et al., 2012) because TPB has been used to explain the entrepreneurship process very clearly (Schlaegel and Koenig, 2014) Researchers have viewed most entrepreneurship as the formation of an intention to commence deliberate behavior as a step in establishing an organization Either the theory of planned behavior or the event model of entrepreneurship has been applied by research on business startup intention when such research used a pre-existing theoretical framework (Kautonen et al., 2015) The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which links the strength of intention to an antecedent of behavior, is the most applied theoretical framework in this stream of research, as noted by Schlaegel and Koenig (2014) The TPB has become the most influential theory of human behavior applied in important fields related to human behavior, a one-of-a-kind business behavior (Aloulou, 2016) Accordingly, the TPB is an indispensable tool to model entrepreneurial intention that cannot be missed (Ferreira et al., 2012)
Krueger et al (2000) assert that entrepreneurship is made up of intentional and planned behavior Intentions are helpful in terms of mediating the control and norms influencing behavior, according to TPB The popular TPB theory has been widely used to elucidate and anticipate human behavior in various aspects of life The validity of TPB for forecasting entrepreneurial intention and behavior has been proven in the research undertaken by Schlaegel and Koenig (2014) The TPB allowed Liñán (2008) to delineate the decision to establish a firm and the intention to be a businessman An individual’s control over his or her company-creation behavior, the perceived social strain to become an entrepreneur and personal attitude are what the objective to become an entrepreneur depends on The individual’s intention to take part in each behavior is a key factor of TPB
Trang 37(2006) as a level of individual judgment to determine whether a venture is lucrative (positive) or non-lucrative (negative) from the perspective of a business owner Perceived social strain (whether to display the behavior or not) defined the antecedent social norm, which was vital in explaining intention towards entrepreneurship as stated by researchers The positive relationship between social norms and entrepreneurial intention was discovered by Kautonen et al (2009) in their study By defining subjective norms as a measure of social pressure, Liñán and Chen (2006) helped entrepreneurs in deciding whether to join in entrepreneurial behavior or not Social pressure refers to the awareness of a specific group (reference group) that approves or opposes the idea of the individual becoming an entrepreneur That individual usually finds the approval from that group Perceived challenge or ease of showing the behavior is what is denoted by perceived behavioral control (PBC) Some authors refer to PBC as self-efficacy The strongest predictor of entrepreneurial intention is nothing but the TPB, where it was regarded as a valuable entrepreneurial resource in the entrepreneurial process by researchers (Sommer and Haug, 2011) According to Liñán and Chen (2009), whether or not one becomes an entrepreneur depends on many factors, both learned and innate, including one’s beliefs and how one perceives oneself
Trang 38concrete action, and extending Ajzen's TPB (Maalaoui et al., 2018) Because the aim of this study is to explore the influence of cultural factors such as acculturation, TS, and MS on EI of ethnic minorities, TPB seems to be a more relevant theory than EEM
In this study, author did not use all three motivational elements (attitude towards entrepreneurship, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control) of entrepreneurial intentions in the TPB Not all studies necessarily apply the full TPB framework to investigate the effects of different variables on entrepreneurial intention (Cui and Bell, 2022; Maheshwari and Kha, 2022); most of the previous studies confirmed that “attitudes towards entrepreneurship” is identified as the strongest predictor of entrepreneurial intention (Duong et al., 2022; Zaremohzzabieh et al., 2019) In addition, the main objective of this dissertation is to explore the influence of factors from entrepreneurial learning perspective such as entrepreneurial education, acculturation, prior self-employed experience, and other personal factors (individual entrepreneurial orientation and self-concept (i.e., perception of traditional self and the perception of modern self) on entrepreneurial intention Therefore, the use of the full TPB framework is not necessary and, at the same time, can dilute the focus on the important objectives of the dissertation
1.6 Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intention
Although previous studies on entrepreneurial intention have employed different theoretical frameworks and corresponding antecedents, as outlined above, previous studies have not taken much attention to the role of entrepreneurial learning in forming entrepreneurial intention Therefore, this study, through the lens of entrepreneurial learning perspective, will focus on examining the role of entrepreneurial education and acculturation In addition, such important personal factors as perception of self and individual entrepreneurial orientation are also investigated as the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention In the following section, author will review these key concepts as antecedents of EI
1.6.1 Entrepreneurial Education
Trang 39educational process that teaches start-up attitude and abilities (Hahn et al., 2017) The entrepreneurial education concept of Jones and English (2004) is geared towards training and focuses on the teaching of academic teachers Hahn et al (2017) refer to entrepreneurial education as a process in which both learners and teachers are involved; this definition is more suitable for this dissertation, since the research object is entrepreneurship learners Therefore, this is also the concept that the dissertation will use in the research
1.6.2 Acculturation
Acculturation has not been comprehensively defined, and there are several conceptions of acculturation proposed by researchers One of the earliest definitions of acculturation, by Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936), posits that acculturation occurs when groups of individuals from different cultures come into firsthand and continuous contact with a different cultural group, resulting in cultural pattern changes to either one or both groups This definition suggests that there must be contact with a different cultural group and that contact must result in changes in beliefs and behaviors A shortcoming of this definition is that it fails to address variances in specific cultural contexts; decades later, the definition was extended to recognize the contextual features of the acculturation process—the interaction between individual factors and social context—in the understanding of individual differences in the process Therefore, Allport (1954) highlighted the role of individual differences in his study of the role of social interactions as a conduit for the transfer of cultural values between groups and individual to individual Friendships and acquaintanceships came to be regarded as mechanisms of acculturation, possessing the potential to not only quell prejudicial conceptions but also provide an insightful view of different cultures (Allport, 1954)
Therefore, acculturation is the adaptive process of cultural adjustment from direct contact and interaction between two distinct cultural groups (Berry, 1990; Mena et al., 1987) It is the “process” and “state” from first-hand contact with the host culture (Searle and Ward, 1990; Ward and Kennedy, 1992; Ward and Kennedy, 1994; Ward and Searle, 1991), and hence a process of intercultural adaptation Intercultural adaptation can be divided into two categories: psychological adaptation—found in the stress and coping framework—and sociocultural adaptation—found in the culture-learning framework (Zhou et al., 2008)
Trang 40some longer-term psychological and sociocultural adaptations between both groups”
(Berry, 2005) However, this interpretation of acculturation indicated that a person becomes acculturated over time by letting go of their native culture (Sam, 2015) This technique has been condemned for thinking that individuals do not adopt their new host culture together with preserving their heritage and home culture (Sam, 2015), or for expecting migrants to give up their original culture in favor of the host culture (Tanenbaum et al., 2015)
However, criticism of Berry’s concept seems to be inaccurate thanks to his acculturation model Berry’s two-dimensional model of acculturation, which examines both the desire to maintain one’s heritage and home cultural identity as well as the desire to approach and engage in the bigger community, is one model of acculturation that fits the modern definition (Berry, 2006) Acculturation occurs in one of four ways, according to Berry’s model: assimilation, separation, integration, or marginalization Assimilation is the process of an individual giving up his or her heritage culture and adopting the host culture; separation entails retaining the heritage culture while rejecting the host culture; integration entails preserving the heritage culture while adopting features of the host culture that are compatible; and marginalization is the loss of heritage culture without the adoption of host culture (Berry, 2005)
In Berry’s acculturation model, assimilation and integration represent a high degree of cultural variation of individuals according to the culture of the group to which they are exposed Meanwhile, separation and marginalization represent a low degree of cultural variation of individuals with the culture of the group to which they are exposed The transition from separation (or marginalization) to integration (or assimilation) represents the desire to approach and engage in the bigger community (see Berry, 2005, Figure 3 on p 705) In this study, the author focuses on researching how the degree of cultural change of ethnic minorities according to their acculturation to Kinh culture affects their entrepreneurial intention Therefore, in line with the aim of this study, in the context of ethnic minorities, acculturation refers to the degree to which the ethnic minority people adapt to/assimilate with the new culture (i.e., the mainstream culture of Kinh people) such as exposure to the mainstream culture, willingness to seek language education, and frequency of contact with people from the mainstream culture
1.6.3 Perception of Self