CONCEPTS AND ENTITIES lik "J" " 11 " " " taste, e Iorm, " sme , J" these names are not Thererore "touch," etc (which stand for actual entities, elements of existence) ( '*" ,l'£- ) A a: ( I4 7c) It may be noted that the names of these relational modes arise as references to the ways in which things become, arise and perish in mutu ality They are in themselves not even actual things ; these are mutual references that hold among actual things by virtue of the relations that the latter bear to one another The Siistra speaks in another context : It is in reference to the birth and death of elements, viz., skandhas, iiyatanas and dhatU5, that there is the derived name "time" (��W.A1:._ �::&j§�) ; there is no time (as substance) other than these Even space and time, together and apart (i.e., whole and part) , identity and differ- ence, long and short are names that arise in a similar way (as references to the ways in which things function in mutual relatedness) Common people cling to them at heart and so they say that these are substantial entities Hence one must abandon (one's clinging entities of the mundane truth 26 (6sc�a) to) the conventional Speaking of the modes of convention the Siistra continues: The being of (complex things with) derived names is like (the name) curd (and what it stands for) "Curd" is (a complex thing) constituted of form, smell, taste and touch ; these four causal factors combine (and there is the complex thing) depending on which (i.e., as referring to which) there is the name, "curd." "Curd," of course, is an existent thing, but its existence (1f) is not of the same kind as the existence of its causal factors (� IPJ���;ff) It is unreal (1!!t) (dependent, derived being) and yet it is not unreal in the same sense as the hare's horn, or the hair of the tortoise, (which are just words without anything cor responding to them) It is only through the combination of the (subtle) causa actors (there is the thing and as its designation there is) the name "curd." The same is the case with "cloth." (The same is also the case even with the person, the individual) V 83 NAGAR.JuNA·S PHILOSOPHY (As to the being of the subtle atomic elements like form smell taste and touch,) these subtle elements combine and there are the subtle particles of hair Through (the combination of) the subtle particles of hair there is the hair itsel£ Through (the combination of) several hairs, there is a lock of hair And through the collections oflocks of hair there are threads and from the threads there is cloth From cloth there is the ready made dress Now, in the absence of the particles of hair there would not be the hair ; in the absence of the locks of hair, there would not be the threads ; in the absence of the threads there would not be the cloth and in the absence of the cloth there would not be the ready-made dress (I47c) But are the subtle elements being ultimate in analysis, themselves real? Speaking of the "subtlest" as only a name imposed, the Siistra says: The "subtlest" has nothing (substantial) as its referent The name is simply i mposed (on what is conceived by some as the subtlest) (�.� 5��Z� ) ; because gross and subtle are only relative terms From the ' s tandp oint of so mething "gross," there is so me thing "subtle ;" but this "subtle" thing itself has still subtler elements (as its constituents and there could be no end to this division ) (I47c) Pursuing in this way, one finds that (subtle and indivisible and there fore real and imperishable) atomic elements cannot be found (The "indivisible " is only superimposed on some n ame "atoms" meaning thing that is not truly indivisible.)117 (I48a) Stripping bare the true being: (1) The three modes of convention : To strip reality bare of the veils of confusion consists not in the literal destruction or even abandonin g of things of mundane existence but in giving up one ' s false imaginations in regard to the true nature of things It is a progressive deepening of one's comprehension of reality Correspond ing to the gros�ness or subtlety of the conventional entities that become objects of clinging under i gnorance , the Prajiiiip iirmitii-sutras give two accounts of this stripping bare These are re ally accounts of conventional 84 CONCEPTS AND ENTITIES modes of being meant to be ofhelp to one in giving up one's false imagi nations about the true nature of things B eguiled by names imp o sed on things the ignorant imagine every thing to be real and nonrelational By mistaking ultimates in analysis as ultim ates in reality, the analysts miss the truly ultimate, the undivided b eing It is essential to distinguish the unreal from the real, the conven tional from the ultimate The three kinds of convention (prajfiapti) that are mentioned here stand for the kinds of conventional entities to which people at different levels of understanding cling as ultimate and uncondi tioned Speaking of the kinds of convention, the Siistra says: The subde elements like the five skandhas are the kinds of entities designated by (the convention called) dharma-prajfiapti (�ill iI�) It is the complex entity constituted of these subde elements that is called the individual It is the combinatio n of many single bones that is c�lled the skull It is the combination of the roots and branches, leaves and clowers that is calle d the tree This is (the kind of convention called ) avavada (�)-prajfiapti By means of these names (individual etc.) the characters of the two kinds of (constituent) elements (viz., bodily and mental) are seized and spoken of as the two (basic) kinds (that constitute the compo site entity called the ego) This is (the kind of convention calle d) nama sanketa (�*)-prajfiapti Again, it is by a com bination of the many subde elements that a gross thing is born Take, for example, the gross physical thing ; it arises as the result of the coming together of many subde physical elements This is dharma-prajfiapti because from (the combination of) certain things cer tain other things are born (��;ff� ) When these gross things combine, there is (again another composite thing born, as referring to which) there arises yet another name When the capacity to illuminate and the capacity to burn come together (there arises the complex thing as the designation of which) there arises the name "fire." (Here)- based on nama and rnpa (which are relatively basic elements) there is the "indi vidual." Nama and rupa are (the basic, constituent) elements ; "indi vidual" is a derived name This is tlfIaviidtrprajfillpti It is called avavid 8S NAGARJUNA"S PHILOSOPHY because here {(niima" is seized and crriipa" is seized (l&{sl&-tdjUl��) At the end of many names, yet other names arise, e g , at the end of the names "ra lc.ter, " "briC " k , " etc there anses ' yet ano ther name, "house " At the end of the names " roots ," "branches," "leaves" and "flowers, " there arises yet another name, "tree." This is niimasanketa-prajiiapti (358lrc) The wayfarer in order to get at the truth ofthese conventional entities and thus to become free from clinging to them as absolute: First denies the niima-sanketa-prajiiapti, and reaches the avaviida prajiiapti, then he denies the avaviida-prajiiapti, and reaches"the dharma prajiiapti, and lastly he denies the Jharma-prajiiapti and reaches the uni versal reality (�JMfi't"t§ �) The universal reality is the prajiiiipiiramitii itself, devoid of all names and determinate essences.28 (3 58 c) In other words, it might be said that common people cling at the level of gross things ; further penetration by analysis puts one on the level of the different complex entities like matter, mind and life which are also as much open to clinging as the gross things themselves Still further analysis leads one to the level of logical entities (like the dharmas of the Sarvastivadins) , the separate minute elements which one arrives at by logical analysis of concrete expe rience Even the last are as much open to clinging as the other two kinds It is by realizing that even the subtlest of things that one arrives at by analysis are not ultimate in re ality that one becomes free from one's clinging to the products of analysis The philo sophy of siinyatii seeks to bring about this realization by laying bare the inconsistencies to hich one is w led by imagining that the subtle and the separate are ultimate and absolute (II) The three grades of essential nature: The same process of stripping bare the essential nature of things, the ultimate reality, is contained in another account of the Prajiiiipiiramitii, viz , that of the three kinds or levels o f lak$at;la, essential nature It consists in starting with the lak$at;la of the complex, conditioned things, passing through the subtle elements 86 CONCEPTS AND ENTITIES of analysis, and reaching fmally the ultimate reality, the indeterminate dharma by a progressive deepening of one's insight into th� true nature of things This is to enable one to become free from clinging in regard to all objects starting from the gross objects of the common man down to the ultimate reality itsel£ Thus the Sastra says: Lak�at}a (essential nature) is of three kinds: that of the derived names (��;fH) (and the composite things designated by them) , that of the subtle (constituent) elements (itff:!) and that of the indeterminate (dharma) (�;fH;fH) (The first kind, viz.,) the lak�at}a of derived names refers to (the determinate essences of the composite) objects like cart, house, forest, army and individual On the complex of all (the constitu ent) elements there is imposed this yet another name (viz., "cart," or "house" or "individual") Owing to the power of ignorance one seizes (these objects) which are by nature derived na1l).es (and dependent en tities) and gives rise to all afflictions and deeds (The second kind), that of the subtle constituent elements (stands for) the subtle elements like the five skandhas, the twelve ayatanas and the eighteen dhatus All (these) are seen as real when seen only with the eyes offlesh Bnt when seen with the eye of wisdom, they are known to be unreal Therefore even these subtle constituent elements are unreal and the �ords (that speak of them as real) are deceptive Therefore one should give up (one's clinging to) the subtle constituent elements Leaving these two kinds, there remains only the essential nature of the indeterminate (�ff:!f§) (dharma) Some people seize (even) this indeterminate dharma; pursuing the characters that they thus seize (under ignorance), they again become subject to life in bondage There fore one should not cling even to the indeterminate (dharma) (The true comprehension of) the indeterminate (dharma) is th at in which clinging to all these three hnds is given up (Jlllt= fl ff:!$:��*§) When there is no character (or determinate nature) (that can be seized) then there is no seizing ; when there is no seizing (and therefore no bind ing) there is also no coming out (from bondage) To be devoid of (specific) nature (�'Ii ) is to be devoid of (specific) character To be 87 ... (��;ff� ) When these gross things combine, there is (again another composite thing born, as referring to which) there arises yet another name When the capacity to illuminate and the capacity to... not be the threads ; in the absence of the threads there would not be the cloth and in the absence of the cloth there would not be the ready-made dress (I47c) But are the subtle elements being ultimate... physical thing ; it arises as the result of the coming together of many subde physical elements This is dharma-prajfiapti because from (the combination of) certain things cer tain other things are