Dictionary of geophysics, astrophysics, and astronomy dipak basu

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DICTIONARY OF GEOPHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, and ASTRONOMY © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Comprehensive Dictionary of Physics Dipak Basu Editor-in-Chief PUBLISHED VOLUMES Dictionary of Pure and Applied Physics Dipak Basu Dictionary of Material Science and High Energy Physics Dipak Basu Dictionary of Geophysics, Astrophysics, and Astronomy Richard A. Matzner © 2001 by CRC Press LLC a Volume in the Comprehensive Dictionary of PHYSICS DICTIONARY OF GEOPHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, and ASTRONOMY Edited by Richard A. Matzner Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. CRC Press © 2001 by CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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QB14 .D53 2001 520 ′ .3—dc21 2001025764 2891 disclaimer Page 1 Friday, April 6, 2001 3:46 PM PREFACE This work is the result of contributions from 52 active researchers in geophysics, astrophysics and astronomy. We have followed a philosophy of directness and simplicity, while still allowing contributors flexibility to expand in their own areas of expertise. They are cited in the contributors’ list, but I take this opportunity to thank the contributors for their efforts and their patience. The subject areas of this dictionary at the time of this writing are among the most active of the physical sciences. Astrophysics and astronomy are enjoying a new golden era, with remarkable observations in new wave bands (γ -rays, X-rays, infrared, radio) and in new fields: neutrino and (soon) gravitational wave astronomy. High resolution mapping of planets continuously yields new discoveries in the history and the environment of the solar system. Theoretical developments are matching these observational results, with new understandings from the largest cosmological scale to the interior of the planets. Geophysics mirrors and drives this research in its study of our own planet, and the analogies it finds in other solar system bodies. Climate change (atmospheric and oceanic long-timescale dynamics) is a transcendingly important societal, as well as scientific, issue. This dictionary provides the background and context for development for decades to come in these and related fields. It is our hope that this dictionary will be of use to students and established researchers alike. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Helen Nelson, and later, Ms. Colleen McMil- lon, in the construction of this work. Finally, I acknowledge the debt I owe to Dr. C.F. Keller, and to the late Prof. Dennis Sciama, who so broadened my horizons in the subjects of this dictionary. Richard Matzner Austin, Texas © 2001 by CRC Press LLC CONTRIBUTORS Tokuhide Akabane Kyoto University Japan David Alexander Lockheed Martin Solar & Astrophysics Laboratory Palo Alto, California Suguru Araki Tohoku Fukushi University Sendai, Japan Fernando Atrio Barandela Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca, Spain Nadine Barlow University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida Cecilia Barnbaum Valdosta State University Valdosta, Georgia David Batchelor NASA Greenbelt, Maryland Max Bernstein NASA Ames Research Center Moffett Field Vin Bhatnagar York University North York, Ontario, Canada Lee Breakiron U.S. Naval Observatory Washington, D.C. Roberto Casadio Universita di Bologna Bologna, Italy Thomas I. Cline Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland Vladimir Escalante Instituto de Astronomia Morelia, Mexico Chris L. Fryer Los Alamos National Laboratories Los Alamos, New Mexico Alejandro Gangui Observatoire de Paris Meudon, France Higgins, Chuck NRC-NASA Greenbelt, Maryland May-Britt Kallenrode University of Luneburg Luneburg, Germany Jeff Knight United Kingdom Meteorological Berkshire, England Andrzej Krasinski Polish Academy of Sciences Bartycka, Warsaw, Poland Richard Link Southwest Research Institute San Antonio, Texas Paolo Marziani Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova Padova, Italy Richard A. Matzner University of Texas Austin, Texas Norman McCormick University of Washington Seattle, Washington Nikolai Mitskievich Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Curtis Mobley Sequoia Scientific, Inc. Mercer Island, Washington Robert Nemiroff Michigan Technological University Houghton, Michigan Peter Noerdlinger Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland Gourgen Oganessyan University of North Carolina Charlotte, North Carolina Joel Parker Boulder, Colorado Nicolas Pereyra Universidad de Los Andes Merida, Venezuela Zoltan Perjes KFKI Research Institute Budapest, Hungary Patrick Peter Institut d’ Astrophysique de Paris Paris, France Morris Podolak Tel Aviv University Tel Aviv, Israel Casadio Roberto Università di Bologna Bologna, Italy Eric Rubenstein Yale University New Haven, Connecticut Ilya Shapiro Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora MG, Brazil T. Singh I.T., B.H.U. Varanasi, India David P. Stern Goddard Space Flight Houston, Texas Virginia Trimble University of California Irvine, California Donald L. Turcotte Cornell University Ithaca, New York Kelin Wang Geological Survey of Canada Sidney, Canada Zichao Wang University of Montreal Montreal, Quebec, Canada Phil Wilkinson IPS Haymarket, Australia Mark Williams University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado Fabian Wolk European Commission Joint Research Institute Marine Environment Unit-TP 690 Ispra, Italy Paul Work Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina Alfred Wuest IOS Sidney, British Columbia, Canada Shang-Ping Xie Hokkaido University Sapporo, Japan Huijun Yang University of South Florida St. Petersburg, Florida © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Shoichi Yoshioka Kyushu University Fukuoka, Japan Stephen Zatman University of California Berkeley, California © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Editorial Advisor Stan Gibilisco © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Abney’s law of additivity A Abbott, David C. Astrophysicist. In 1976, in collaboration with John I. Castor and Richard I. Klein, developed the theory of winds in early type stars (CAK theory). Through hydrodynamic models and atomic data, they showed that the total line-radiation pressure is the probable mechanism that drives the wind in these systems, being able to account for the ob- served wind speeds, wind mass-loss rates, and general form of the ultraviolet P-Cygni line pro- files through which the wind was originally de- tected. Abelian Higgs model Perhaps the simplest example of a gauge theory, first proposed by P.W. Higgs in 1964. The Lagrangian is simi- lar to the one in the Goldstone model where the partial derivatives are now replaced by gauge co- variants,∂ µ →∂ µ −ieA µ , wheree is the gauge coupling constant between the Higgs fieldφ and A µ . There is also the square of the antisymmet- ric tensorF µν =∂ µ A ν −∂ ν A µ which yields a kinetic term for the massless gauge fieldA µ . Now the invariance of the Lagrangian is with re- spect to the gaugeU(1) symmetry transforma- tionφ→e i(x) φ and, in turn, the gauge field transforms asA µ (x)→A µ (x)+e −1 ∂ µ (x), with(x) being an arbitrary function of space and time. It is possible to write down the La- grangian of this model in the vicinity of the true vacuum of the theory as that of two fields, one of spin 1 and another of spin 0, both of them be- ing massive (plus other higher order interaction terms), in complete agreement with the Higgs mechanism. Interestingly enough, a similar theory serves to model superconductors (whereφ would now be identified with the wave function for the Cooper pair) in the Ginzburg–Landau theory. See Goldstone model, Higgs mechanism, spon- taneous symmetry breaking. Abelian string Abelian strings form when, in the framework of a symmetry breaking scheme G→H, the generators of the groupG com- mute. One example is the complete breakdown of the AbelianU(1)→{1}. The vacuum mani- fold of the phase transition is the quotient space, and in this case, it is given by M∼U(1). The first homotopy group is thenπ 1 (M)∼Z, the (Abelian) group of integers. All strings formed correspond to elements ofπ 1 (except the identity element). Regarding the string network evolution, exchange of part- ners (through intercommutation) is only possi- ble between strings corresponding to the same element of π 1 (or its inverse). Strings from different elements (which always commute for Abelian π 1 ) pass through each other without intercommutation taking place. See Abelian Higgs model, homotopy group, intercommuta- tion (cosmic string), Kibble mechanism, non- Abelian string, spontaneous symmetry break- ing. aberration of stellar light Apparent dis- placement of the geometric direction of stel- lar light arising because of the terrestrial mo- tion, discovered by J. Bradley in 1725. Clas- sically, the angular position discrepancy can be explained by the law of vector composition: the apparent direction of light is the direction of the difference between the earth velocity vector and the velocity vector oflight. Apresentlyaccepted explanation is provided by the special theory of relativity. Three components contribute to the aberration of stellar light with terms called di- urnal, annual, and secular aberration, as the mo- tion of the earth is due to diurnal rotation, to the orbital motion around the center of mass of the solar system, and to the motion of the solar sys- tem. Because of annual aberration, the apparent position of a star moves cyclically throughout the year in an elliptical pattern on the sky. The semi-major axis of the ellipse, which is equal to the ratio between the mean orbital velocity of earth and the speed of light, is called the aberra- tion constant. Its adopted value is 20.49552 sec of arc. Abney’s law of additivity The luminous power of a source is the sum of the powers of the components of any spectral decomposition of the light. c © 2001 by CRC Press LLC [...]... cannot consist of protons and electrons, which became an early indication of the existence of neutrons The two physicists also constructed an early model of discrete spacetime Ambartsumian’s achievements in astrophysics include the discovery and development of invariance principles in the theory of radiative transfer, and advancement of the empirical approach in astrophysics, based on analysis and interpretation... solar wind velocity and δB in magnetic field obey the relation δB δv sowi = ± √ 4π The Earth’s albedo varies widely based on the status and colors of earth surface, plant covers, soil types, and the angle and wavelength of the incident radiation Albedo of the earth atmosphere system, averaging about 30%, is the combination of reflectivity of earth surface, cloud, and each component of atmosphere The value... relativity, a notion of boundary points of the spacetime manifold, constructed by the closure of the open sets of an atlas A of coordinate maps The transition functions of the coordinate maps are extended to the boundary points absolute humidity One of the definitions for the moisture content of the atmosphere — the total mass of water vapor present per unit volume of air, i.e., the density of water vapor... inclination of 0.4◦ , a precession of 914.6◦ yr−1 , and a semimajor axis of 1.81 × 105 km Its size is 135 × 83 × 75 km, its mass, 7.18 × 1018 kg, and its density 1.8 g cm−3 It has a geometric albedo of 0.06 and orbits Jupiter once every 0.498 Earth days Its surface seems to be composed of rock and sulfur Amazonian Geophysical epoch on the planet Mars, 0 to 1.8 Gy BP Channels on Mars give evidence of large... space and time In Newtonian Mechanics, it is implicitly assumed that the measurement of time and the measurement of lengths of physical bodies are independent of the reference system absolute viscosity The ratio of shear to the rate of strain of a fluid Also referred to as molecular viscosity or dynamic viscosity For a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress within the fluid, τ , is related to the rate of strain... increase in severity, size, and duration through the 1990s In recent years, up to two-thirds of the total amount of ozone has been lost by mid-October, largely as a result of losses of over 90% in the layer between 14 and 22 km where a large fraction of the ozone is normally found The onset of the ozone losses occurs in September, and the ozone hole usually recovers by the end of November In the more controversial... convection) In the Earth, the asthenosphere is composed of the lower part of the mantle and is the region between 100 and 640 km depth It is marked by low seismic velocities and high seismic-wave attenuation The ability of the asthenosphere to flow over long time periods (thousands to millions of years) helps to transport heat from the deep interior of a body and leads to plate tectonic activity on Earth as... stretching and bending of most interstellar molecules Longer and shorter wavelengths, known as the far and near IR, respectively, correspond to low frequency motions of © 2001 by CRC Press LLC groups of atoms and overtones of far and mid-IR features astronomy, infrared: interstellar grains, comets, satellites, and asteroids Absorption, reflection, and emission at infrared (IR) wavelengths provide astronomers... Aten asteroid A member of a class of asteroids with Venus-crossing orbits, in contrast to the majority of asteroids that orbit between Mars and Jupiter There are 30 known members of the Aten class Atlas A moon of Saturn, also designated SXV It was discovered by R Terrile in 1980 in Voyager photos Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0, an inclination of 0.3◦ , and a semimajor axis of 1.38×105 km Its size... including a rotation of the orbit in its plane, a precession of the perihelion General relativity predicts a specific advance of the perihelion of planets, equal to 43 sec of arc per century for Mercury, and this is observationally verified Other planets have substantially smaller advance of their perihelion: for Venus the general relativity prediction is 8.6 sec of arc per century, and for Earth the prediction . VOLUMES Dictionary of Pure and Applied Physics Dipak Basu Dictionary of Material Science and High Energy Physics Dipak Basu Dictionary of Geophysics, Astrophysics, and. DICTIONARY OF GEOPHYSICS, ASTROPHYSICS, and ASTRONOMY © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Comprehensive Dictionary of Physics Dipak Basu Editor-in-Chief PUBLISHED