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[...]... gravitation and applies them on a grand scale In fact, introductory modern cosmology can be tackled in a different way, by avoiding general relativity altogether By a lucky chance, and a subtle bit of cheating, the correct equations describing an expanding Universe can be obtained from Newtonian gravity From this basis, one can study all the triumphs of the Hot Big Bang cosmology — the expansion of the... detailed comments which led to the first edition being much better than it would have otherwise been Thanks also to those who sent me useful comments on the first edition, in particular Paddy Leahy and Michael Rowan-Robinson, and of course to all the Wiley staff who contributed Matthew Colless Brian Schmidt and Michael Turner provided three of the figures, and Martin Hendry, Martin Kunz and Franz Schunck... are five Advanced Topic chapters, each with prerequisites, which can be added to extend the course as desired Ordinarily the best time to tackle those Advanced Topics is immediately after their prerequisites have been attained, though they could also be included at any later stage I'm extremely grateful to the reviewers of the original draft manuscript, namely Steve Eales, Coel Hellier and Linda Smith,... the protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei Protons and neutrons are believed to be made up of more fundamental particles known as quarks, a proton being made of two up quarks and a down quark, while a neutron is an up and two downs A general term for particles made up of three quarks is baryons Of all the possible baryons, only the proton and neutron can be stable,3 and so these are thought to be... photons of energy hf ~ k&T dominated by photons with energies of order k&T Indeed, the mean energy of a photon in this distribution is Emean ~ 3 k B T When we study the early history of the Universe, an important question will be how this typical energy compares to atomic and nuclear binding energies A further quantity of interest will be the total energy density of the black-body radiation, obtained... increasing demand for cosmology to be taught at university in an accessible manner Traditionally, cosmology was taught, as it was to me, as the tail end of a general relativity course, with a derivation of the metric for an expanding Universe and a few solutions Such a course fails to capture the flavour of modern cosmology, which takes classic physical sciences like thermodynamics, atomic physics and gravitation... further described in Advanced Topic 5 Large-scale smoothness: Only once we get to even larger scales, hundreds of megaparsecs or more, does the Universe begin to appear smooth Recent extremely large galaxy surveys, the 2dF galaxy redshift survey and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, have surveyed volumes around one hundred times the size of the CfA survey, each containing hundreds of thousands of galaxies... the Friedmann equation which describes the expansion of the Universe, turns out to be the same when derived from Newton's theory of gravity as it is when derived from the equations of general relativity The Newtonian derivation is, however, some way from being completely rigorous, and general relativity is required to fully patch it up, a detail that need not concern us at this stage In Newtonian gravity... prerequisites are all very standard physics, and the emphasis is aimed at physical intuition rather than mathematical rigour Since the book's publication cosmology has moved on apace, and I have also become aware of the need for a somewhat more extensive range of material, hence this second edition To summarize the differences from the first edition, there is more stuff than before, and the stuff that was... of light, it can be thought of as made up of individual particles — like packets of energy — known as photons and usually indicated by the symbol 7 Photons propagate, naturally enough, at the speed of light; since they have zero rest mass their total energy is always given by their kinetic energy, and is related to their frequency / by E = hf, (2.6) where h is Planck's constant Photons can interact with . Second Edition An Introduction to Modern Cosmology This page intentionally left blank An Introduction To Modern Cosmology Second Edition Andrew Liddle University . light Reduced Planck constant Boltzmann constant Radiation constant Electron mass-energy Proton mass-energy Neutron mass-energy Thomson cross-section Free