al-Azhar The following 40 years were characterized by almost constant warfare between pope and anti-pope, in which the Papal States were the chief playground The schism left no one sitting on the fence Having unparalleled impact on political allegiances, it reshaped European geopolitics, changing cultural boundaries and paving the way for the upcoming Reformation With every passing year the split went deeper On the side of the “French” Pope Clement VII fought such powerful allies as the king of France, the kings of Naples and Scotland, and half of the rulers of Germany; Urban was supported by England, Portugal, and Hungary The legal pope continued to be tactless and inconsiderate to his allies, and gradually his authority grew weak Appointing new cardinals to replace the rebels was not a sufficient measure to keep discipline among the supporters; constantly suspecting treachery, Urban did not hesitate to send several cardinals to be executed for “disobedience” to his will Isolated and defeated in most of his battles, Urban locked himself up in his castle—mainly to hide from the French king who had announced a huge prize for the pope’s head In 1389 Urban VI came back to Rome, where he died, according to one source, surrounded by followers; according to another, he was poisoned by enemies Soon after Urban’s funeral it became clear that even the disappearance of one of the ruling pontiffs would not save the situation—the “Italian” party immediately appointed a successor Thus receiving a precedent, the schism continued—Clement VII was succeeded by Benedict XIII (from 1394); Urban VI by Boniface IX (1389–1404), Innocent VII (1404–06), and Gregory XII (from 1406) The conflict deteriorated when the Council of Pisa in 1409 deposed both Benedict XIII and Gregory XII, selecting new pope Alexander V (1409–10) The deposed popes refused to recognize the decision of the Council, and the Holy See became occupied by three popes at once This development was very favorable to the heretical movements that rose in large quantities all across Europe, preaching noninstitutional evangelism and unbalancing the old feudal system Secular lords and princes who supported the establishment and the unity of the church were greatly concerned, despite the fact that the decrease in the papal authority contributed to consolidation of power in the hands of secular rulers The schism continued well into the 15th century, until, finally, the Council of Constance (1414–18) put an end to it, having deposed three popes at once: John XXIII (successor of Alexander V), Gregory XII, and 31 Benedict XIII, and selecting, to the great relief of everyone involved, a single pontiff—Martin V (1417–31) Further reading: Housley, Norman Avignon Papacy and the Crusades New York: Clarendon Press, 1986; Smith, John H The Great Schism London: Hamish Hamilton, 1970; Ullman, Walter The Origins of the Great Schism London: Burns Oats and Washbourne Ltd., 1948; Workman, Herbert B Church of the West in the Middle Ages London: Kelly, 1900–12 Victoria Duroff al-Azhar The Fatimids established al-Azhar, one of the oldest universities in the world, in Cairo in 970 Built around a large mosque with an open courtyard surrounded by columned walkways where classes were taught, al-Azhar quickly became one of the premier educational centers in the entire Islamic world, attracting students from Asia, Africa, and, in subsequent centuries, the Western Hemisphere Originally, the university focused on the tenets of the Isma’ili sect of Islam followed by the Fatimid rulers, but over the following centuries the university became a center for orthodox Sunni belief By the 1600s the Shaykh al-Azhar, leader of al-Azhar, was chosen from among the shaykhs of the university Generations of legal scholars and judges were educated in theology and Islamic law at al-Azhar In the 15th century c.e., the Mamluk sultan Qaitbey financed the construction of an inner gate and elaborate minaret overlooking the courtyard Following sultans added further buildings and ornamentation to the sprawling complex, including living quarters for students, libraries, and the mosque After the 1952 c.e revolution in Egypt, Gamal Nasser modernized and instituted major reforms including the creation of a College of Islamic Women and the addition of colleges in medicine and engineering See also Fatimid dynasty; Islam; Isma’ilis Further reading: Dodge, Bayard Al-Azhar: A Millennium of Muslim Learning Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute, 1961; Eccel, A Chris Egypt, Islam, and Social Change: Al-Azhar in Conflict and Accommodation Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 1984 Janice J Terry