Edited by Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David Reinaldo J. Silva ENVIRONMENT IN AQUACULTURE HEALTH AND HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT IN AQUACULTURE Edited by Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David and Reinaldo J. Silva Health and Environment in Aquaculture Edited by Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David and Reinaldo J. Silva Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Molly Kaliman Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Health and Environment in Aquaculture, Edited by Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David and Reinaldo J. Silva p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0497-1 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Parasitic Diseases 1 Chapter 1 Transmission Biology of the Myxozoa 3 Hiroshi Yokoyama, Daniel Grabner and Sho Shirakashi Chapter 2 Metazoan Parasites of the European Sea Bass Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus 1758) (Pisces: Teleostei) from Corsica 43 Laetitia Antonelli and Bernard Marchand Chapter 3 Parasitic Diseases in Cultured Marine Fish in Northwest Mexico 63 Emma J. Fajer-Ávila, Oscar B. Del Río-Zaragoza and Miguel Betancourt-Lozano Part 2 Bacterial Diseases 95 Chapter 4 Molecular Detection and Characterization of Furunculosis and Other Aeromonas Fish Infections 97 Roxana Beaz Hidalgo and María José Figueras Chapter 5 An Overview of Virulence-Associated Factors of Gram-Negative Fish Pathogenic Bacteria 133 Jessica Méndez, Pilar Reimundo, David Pérez-Pascual, Roberto Navais, Esther Gómez, Desirée Cascales and José A. Guijarro Part 3 Antibiotics and Probiotics 157 Chapter 6 Antibiotics in Aquaculture – Use, Abuse and Alternatives 159 Jaime Romero, Carmen Gloria Feijoó and Paola Navarrete VI Contents Chapter 7 The Use of Antibiotics in Shrimp Farming 199 M.C. Bermúdez-Almada and A. Espinosa-Plascencia Chapter 8 Probiotics in Aquaculture – Benefits to the Health, Technological Applications and Safety 215 Xuxia Zhou and Yanbo Wang Chapter 9 Probiotics in Aquaculture of Kuwait – Current State and Prospect 227 Ahmed Al-marzouk and Azad I. Saheb Part 4 Applied Topics of Cellular and Molecular Biology 249 Chapter 10 Use of Microarray Technology to Improve DNA Vaccines in Fish Aquaculture – The Rhabdoviral Model 251 P. Encinas, E. Gomez-Casado, A. Estepa and J.M. Coll Chapter 11 Fighting Virus and Parasites with Fish Cytotoxic Cells 277 M. Ángeles Esteban, José Meseguer and Alberto Cuesta Chapter 12 Bacteriocins of Aquatic Microorganisms and Their Potential Applications in the Seafood Industry 303 Suphan Bakkal, Sandra M. Robinson and Margaret A. Riley Chapter 13 The Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Vertebra and Cellular Pathways to Vertebral Deformities 329 Elisabeth Ytteborg, Jacob Torgersen, Grete Baeverfjord and Harald Takle Part 5 Ecological Impacts of Fish Farming 359 Chapter 14 Ecological Features of Large Neotropical Reservoirs and Its Relation to Health of Cage Reared Fish 361 Edmir Daniel Carvalho, Reinaldo José da Silva, Igor Paiva Ramos, Jaciara Vanessa Krüger Paes, Augusto Seawright Zanatta, Heleno Brandão, Érica de Oliveira Penha Zica, André Batista Nobile, Aline Angelina Acosta and Gianmarco Silva David Part 6 Work-Related Hazards – Prevention and Mitigation 383 Chapter 15 Aquacultural Safety and Health 385 Melvin L. Myers and Robert M. Durborow Contents VII Part 7 Spread of Pathogens from Marine Cage 401 Chapter 16 Spread of Pathogens from Marine Cage Aquaculture – A Potential Threat for Wild Fish Assemblages Under Protection Regimes? 403 Antonio Terlizzi, Perla Tedesco and Pierpaolo Patarnello Preface Aquaculture is a modality of food production that has been experiencing continuous expansion in many countries worldwide. This expansion brings the challenge of developing reliable tools for disease control, to assure high productivity of healthy seafood. The increase of farmed fish production raises the issue of achieving a sustainable and environmental friendly aquaculture. The adoption of best management practices in the whole production chain, based on “state of the art” scientific knowledge, is the key for sustainable health management. In this book, experts from several countries bring updated information about some of the main health issues that currently affects aquaculture. Topics concerning pathogens, antibiotics, probiotics, cell biology, ecological interactions, and safety are included in the six sections of this book. The first section is entitled as “Parasitic diseases”, addressing issues and impacts of parasites upon aquaculture. The first chapter is the “Transmission biology of the myxozoa”, which explains about the diseases that some myxozoans cause in marine and freshwater fish, and how they can be a problem for aquaculture and fishery industries. It also elucidates the life cycle of myxozoans, that involves invertebrates, and a vertebrate host that is typically a fish. However, there are no commercially available chemotherapeutants and vaccines to treat myxozoan infections. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the transmission biology of myxozoans, which would be useful for designing management strategies for related diseases. The second chapter is “Metazoan parasites of cultured European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (Linneaus 1758) from Corsica”. It is a study relating that parasitic infections and associated diseases have emerged in aquaculture systems in many regions of Europe, resulting in significant economical losses. This study points out that wild fish are believed to be the primary reservoirs of parasite infection for fish farmed in cages, and environmental conditions in culture systems may favor disease transmission, threatening production activity. In this sense, it is considered that animals reared in sea-cages are exposed to a large number of parasitic agents. The third chapter is “Parasitic diseases in cultured marine fish in Northwest Mexico”. This chapter summarizes the main parasitic diseases that affect marine fish species with aquaculture potential in the Norwest Pacific coast of Mexico, emphasising proper strategies for their control. The study shows the need to perform parasite treatment and control applying prophylactic and therapeutic measures. X Preface In the section “Bacterial diseases”, the fourth chapter “Updated information of Aeromonas infections and furunculosis derived from molecular methods” focuses on the bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida, the causal agent of furunculosis, considered a particularly important fish pathogen mainly due to its widespread distribution and ability to infect a diverse range of hosts, causing massive mortalities and economic losses. Additionally, climate change has been considered to play a role in the appearance and impact of furunculosis. The study undertakes molecular techniques in Aeromonas infections in fish, including significant advances in genomics and taxonomy of these microorganisms. The fifth chapter is “An overview on virulence-associated factors of Gram-negative fish pathogenic bacteria”, which addresses the issue of bacterial outbreaks causing important economic losses for aquaculture. Gram-negative bacteria have long been recognized as a cause of the most prevalent fish pathologies in the aquaculture industry. The application of in vivo and in vitro molecular techniques to fish pathogenic bacteria resulted in the characterization of novel virulence determinants and allowed to increase the knowledge of bacterial pathogenic mechanisms. This review deals with representative species of gram-negative fish pathogenic bacteria in the context of the analysis of well-established virulent factors produced by these pathogens. In the section “Antibiotics and probiotics”, the sixth chapter is “Antibiotics in aquaculture: use, abuse and alternatives”. This study argues that unpredictable mortalities in aquaculture production may be due to negative interactions between fish and pathogenic bacteria. To solve this problem, farmers frequently use antibiotic compounds to treat bacterial diseases. The concerns about the increase in bacterial resistance and antibiotic residues have aroused great caution in the use of antibiotics in aquaculture, which has encouraged research to obtain alternatives. The aim of this chapter is to provide information about the current knowledge in antibiotic use in aquaculture systems, including information about mechanisms of action and resistance. The seventh chapter is “The use of antibiotics in shrimp farming”. This is an important study, considering that shrimp cultivation has been the most expanding aquaculture activity. Nevertheless, this industry faces major problems with viral and bacterial diseases, and large quantities of chemical and antibiotic products are frequently used to counteract this. The study demonstrates the importance of applying appropriate therapies with antibiotics, seeking greater effectiveness for the control of bacterial infections. The eighth and ninth chapters, within this section, deal with probiotics in aquaculture, which has been considered a key factor for fish health management, due to the increasing demand for environment friendly aquaculture. The eighth chapter is “Probiotics in aquaculture: benefits to the health, technological applications and safety”. This study points out that, currently, a number of preparations of probiotics are commercially available and have been introduced to fish, shrimp and molluscan farming as feed additives. Thus, there is a commercial and academic interest of increasing our knowledge in effective preparation, technological applications, and safety evaluation of probiotics. The ninth chapter is “Probiotics in aquaculture of Kuwait: current state and prospect”, and mentions the application of [...]... actinospores (triactinomyxon and raabeia) penetrate mainly through the fin and skin 2.5.6 Other biological characteristics Effects of physical and chemical treatments on viability of actinosporeans were investigated, although the information is available only for Myxobolus cerebralis and Myxobolus cultus For 22 Health and Environment in Aquaculture M cerebralis, drying at room temperature for 15 min,... from surface mucus of fish, inosine, 2‘deoxyinosine and guanosine have been determined by HPLC method as ‘chemical cues’ triggering host recognition for M cerebralis actinospores (Kallert et al., 2011) 2.5.5 Portals of entry into fish Entry of myxozoans into the fish host via the skin, fins and buccal cavity was first demonstrated in rainbow trout experimentally exposed to actinospores of Myxobolus cerebralis... Echinactinomyxon, Raabeia, Triactinomyxon, Pseudotriactinomyxon, Hexactinomyxon, Ormieractinomyxon, Siedleckiella, Synactinomyxon, Antoactinomyxon, Hungactinomyxon and Unicapsulactinomyxon From the practical point of view, the large-type actinospores are more likely to be removed by filtration systems than the small-type actinospores Thus it is important to determine the type of the corresponding actinospore,... and invasion of E scophthalmi to the turbot intestinal epithelium were inhibited by pre-treatments of parasites by some lectins, Con A and SBA, suggesting the involvement of N-acetyl-galactosamine and galactose residues and also of mannose/glucose residues (Redondo & Alvarez-Pellitero, 2010) After penetration of the developmental stages into the intestinal epithelium, several factors are involved in. .. diversity of bacteriocins produced by marine microorganisms, their role in mediating microbial interactions in the marine environment, and their potential applications in the seafood industry The thirteenth chapter is “Molecular characterization of pathological bone development in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)” This study argues that spinal disorders are a recurrent problem for aquaculture, and until recently,... freezing at -20ºC for 1 hour, temperatures above 75 ºC for 5 min and sonication (47 kHz, 130 W) for 10-13 min were effective in killing actinospores, but pressure of 6.2 x 107 Pa (9000 psi) was not (Wagner et al., 2003) To inactivate actinospores of M cerebralis chemically, chlorine of 13 ppm for 10 min, hydrogen peroxide of 10% for 10 min, and povidone-iodine of 50% solution (5000 ppm active iodine)... reported in marine aquaculture within the Mediterranean region The last section is “Work-related hazards: prevention and mitigation”, with the sixteenth chapter: “Aquacultural Safety and Health showing that occupational hazards in aquaculture are associated with different rearing technologies Farm operators are encouraged to adopt or develop inherently safety technologies by first eliminating, then guarding... freshwater and marine myxozoans When colonizing polychaetes as hosts, the tetractinomyxon type of spore developed or was already present in the freshwater ancestor of marine myxozoans This actinospore-type persisted at least in most myxozoans parasitizing marine polychaetes that we know to date Knowledge of more life cycles of marine myxozoans is necessary to provide information on marine actinosporean diversity... waterborne stage, invasion mechanisms, and the portals of entry into fish host Invasion process has been also investigated in relation to the mechanisms in the host specificity of the parasites The current knowledge on the aforementioned points is summarized below 2.5.1 Methodology for actinosporean biology To obtain materials for research on actinosporeans, it is desirable to maintain the life cycle... et al., 1993) In contrast, Özer & Wootten (2002) reported that raabeia and synactinomyxon spores remain viable only for 2-3 days at 22 ºC Markiw (1992) showed that the infectivity of actinospores of M cerebralis persisted for 3-4 days at 12.5 ºC, whereas El-Matbouli et al (1999a) indicated that M cerebralis actinospores survived and maintained their infectivity for 15 days at 15 ºC Using morphological . Carvalho, Gianmarco Silva David Reinaldo J. Silva ENVIRONMENT IN AQUACULTURE HEALTH AND HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT IN AQUACULTURE Edited by Edmir. bacteriocins produced by marine microorganisms, their role in mediating microbial interactions in the marine environment, and their potential applications in