The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation http w834049 This page intentionally left blank The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation During the past ce.The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation http w834049 This page intentionally left blank The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation During the past ce.
This page intentionally left blank The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation During the past century, humans have destroyed approximately 50 percent of the world’s wetlands As wetlands shrink in area, their important functions decline too: there is reduced carbon storage, lower biological diversity, lower fish production, less available water during drought, higher flood levels in spring, and higher risk of water pollution The world’s largest wetlands have not been described, ranked, and compared previously For the first time, an international team of scholars shares its understanding of the status, ecological dynamics, functions, and conservation needs of the world’s largest wetlands L a u c h l a n H F r a s e r was recently appointed the Canada Research Chair in Community and Ecosystem Ecology at Thompson Rivers University He has published over 25 scholarly papers and is on the editorial boards of Applied Vegetation Science and the Ohio Journal of Science Dr Fraser’s research group examines the processes that organize plant communities and the functional consequences of different emergent patterns on ecosystem functions His laboratory focuses on ecosystems that are among those most affected by anthropogenic and natural disturbances, namely freshwater wetlands and temperate grasslands Pa u l A K e d d y holds the Edward G Schlieder Endowed Chair for Environmental Studies Over his career Dr Keddy has published more than a hundred scholarly papers on plant ecology and wetlands, as well as serving organizations including The National Science Foundation (NSF), The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the World Wide Fund for Nature, and The Nature Conservancy He has been recognized by the Institute for Scientific Information as a Highly Cited Researcher in the field of Ecology and the Environment His current research examines the environmental factors that control wetlands, and how these factors can be manipulated to maintain and restore biological diversity The World’s Largest Wetlands Ecology and Conservation Edited by Lauchl an H Fraser and Paul A Keddy Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521834049 © Cambridge University Press 2005 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 - - ---- eBook (EBL) --- eBook (EBL) - - ---- hardback --- hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of contributors vii Preface ix Introduction: big is beautiful K e d d y, P A a n d F r a s e r , L H The West Siberian Lowland 11 Solomeshch, A I The Amazon River basin 63 J u n k , W J a n d P i e da d e , M T F The Hudson Bay Lowland 118 A b r a h a m , K F a n d K e d d y, C J The Congo River basin 149 Campbell, D The Mackenzie River basin 166 V i t t, D H , H a l s e y, L A , a n d N i c h o l s o n , B J The Pantanal 203 Alho, C J R The Mississippi River alluvial plain 272 S h a f f e r , G P , G o s s e l i n k , J G , a n d H o e p p n e r , S S The Lake Chad basin 316 L e m oa l l e , J v vi Contents 10 The River Nile basin 347 Springuel, I and Ali, O 11 The prairie potholes of North America 393 va n d e r Va l k , A G 12 The Magellanic moorland 424 A r r o y o , M T K , M i h o c , M , P l i s c o f f, P , and Arroyo-Kalin, M 13 The future of large wetlands: a global perspective 446 F r a s e r , L H a n d K e d d y, P A Index 469 Contributors Kenneth F Abraham Ontario Ministry of Naturnal Resources, Wildlife Research and Development Section, 300 Water Street, 3rd Floor North, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 8M5 Cleber J R Alho UNIDERP (Universidade para o Desenvolvimento Estado e para a Região Pantanal), Campo Grande, MS, Brasil Osman Ali Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum, P O Box 321, Sudan Mary T K Arroyo Millennium Center for Advanced Studies in Ecology and Research on Biodiversity, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile Manuel Arroyo-Kalin Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ, UK Daniel Campbell Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402, USA Lauchlan H Fraser Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada V2C 5N3 James G Gosselink Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA Linda A Halsey Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 2E9 vii viii List of contributors Suzanne S Hoeppner Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402, USA Wolfgang J Junk Max-Planck-Institute for Limnology, PB 165, 24306 Plön, Germany Cathy J Keddy Ecologist, Ponchatoula, LA, USA Paul A Keddy Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402, USA Jacques Lemoalle IRD, Montpellier, France Maritza Mihoc Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile Barbara J Nicholson Department of Biology, Central Connecticut State University, New Britain, CT 06050, USA Maria T F Piedade Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA), PB 478, 69.011-970 Manaus, AM, Brazil Patricio Pliscoff Millennium Center for Advanced Studies in Ecology & Research on Biodiversity, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile Gary P Shaffer Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402, USA Ayzik I Solomeshch Institute of Biology Ufa Scientific Center, Russian Academy of Science, 450054, October av 69, Ufa, Russia Irina Springuel South Valley University, Aswan, 81528, Egypt Arnold G van der Valk Department of Botany, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA Dale H Vitt Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901 6509, USA 474 Index Congo River basin (cont.) low endemism in wetland types mapped using remote central Congo sensing 150, basin 151 151 mining and oil and gas extraction 159 monkey species 156 non-forested wetlands 156 periodically flooded forests 154 5, 156 permanently flooded swamp forests 154 5, 156 pioneer riparian forests 154 5, 156 protected areas and enforcement problems 159 60 pygmy populations 157 rainfall patterns and water loss reptiles 156 research difficulties 149 51 river discharge patterns and water-level fluctuation 152 riverine forests 154 5, 156 soil-type diversity 153 wildlife 156 Coturnicopus noveboracensis 156 operations 158 vegetation types 154 5, 156 water quality affected by soil types 153 wet prairies 156 wetland forest types 154 5, 156 Amazon basin 83 duikers (Cephalophus spp.) (CRB) 156 dwarf antelope (Neotragus batesi) (CRB) 156 (yellow rail), endangered species (HBL) 129 31 crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) (Pantanal) 241 crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) (Lake Chad) 334 Culcivora caudacuta (sharp-tailed-tyrant), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 Cyperus papyrus (papyrus) distribution on Lake Chad 327 effects of water conductivity changes 330 in ancient Nile Delta 375 loss from Egypt and re-introduction 385 re-introduction in First Cataract Islands (RNB) 375 RNB 355 swamp forests 154 5, upland logging dolphin (Sotalia fluviatilis), Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus) First Cataract Islands (RNB) 373 Lake Nasser (RNB) 369 70 Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) First Cataract Islands (RNB) 373 invasion of swamp lands (RNB) 356 Eira barbara (tayra) (Pantanal) 241 El Niño events drought and wildfire risk in Amazon basin 72 3, 78 effects on Amazon basin 71 effects on carbon cycling in Amazon basin 79 80 possible effects on Paraguay River (Pantanal) 214 predicted future effects Dasypus novemcinctus (armadillo) (Pantanal) 240 Delphinapteras leucas (beluga whale) (HBL) 129 Dichrostonyx torquatus on ARB 95 endangered, threatened and rare species HBL 129 31 MRB 169 MSRAP 281 2, 283 (collared lemming) MSRD 283 4, 294 (WSL) 19 20 Pantanal 241 2, 249 dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), Amazon basin 83 RNB (Nile Delta) 376 WSL 19 20, 25, 29, 36 Index eskimo curlew (Numenius fox “lobinho” (Cerdocyon borealis), probable thous) (Pantanal) extinction 129 31 240 1, 242 Eunectes murinus (green anaconda), in the Pantanal 236 Eunectes notaeus (yellow anaconda) (Pantanal) 236 Euphractus sexcinctus (armadillo), in the Pantanal 240 Falco naumanni naumanni (lesser kestrel), Lake Burullus wetlands (RNB) 379 fasciated tiger heron wetlands (RNB) 378 Gulo gulo (wolverine) (HBL) 129, 131 Gavia pacifica (Pacific loon) (HBL) 129 31 Gavia stellata (red-throated loon) (HBL) 129 31 “guanaco” (Lama guanicoe), southern South American peat bogs 435, 440 Genetta tigrina (blotched genet) (CRB) 156 giant anteater (Myrmecophaga Haliaeetus leucocephalus (bald eagle) (MSRAP, tridactyla), MSRD) 278 9, 280 1, endangered species 283 4, 294 (Pantanal) 240, 241 2, 249 giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus), harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 Hippocamelus bisulcus endangered species (“huemul”), (Tigrisoma fasciatum), (Pantanal) 240 2, southern South threatened species 249 American peat bogs (Pantanal) 249 Felis aurata (golden cat) (CRB) 156 Felis concolor (Florida panther) (MSRAP) 281 2, giant forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni) (CRB) 156 giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) 283 Amazon basin 83 ferruginous duck (Aythya threatened species nyroca) First Cataract Islands (RNB) 375 threatened species (Lake Nasser, RNB) 369 70 wintering on Lake Burullus (RNB) 379 fishing bat (Noctilio leporinus), Amazon basin 83 Florida panther (Felis concolor) (Pantanal) 241 2, 249 golden cat (Felis aurata) (CRB) 156 Gorilla gorilla gorilla (western lowland gorilla) (CRB) 156 great-billed seed finch (Oryzoborus maximiliani), (MSRAP) 281 2, threatened species 283 (Pantanal) 249 forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) (CRB) 156 forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) (CRB) 156 green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) (Pantanal) 236 green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Lake Burullus 435 hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) CRB 156 Lake Chad and River Chari 334 howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) (Pantanal) 241 Hudson Bay Lowland (HBL) bird habitat destruction by light geese 120, 139 40 bird species 128 31 bog wetland ecosystems 124 6, 127 climate warming and sea-level rise 137 climates and nature of wetlands 119 climatic variation among ecoregions 121, 122 475 476 Index Hudson Bay Lowland (cont.) coastal wetland ecosystems 127 conservation priorities 141 conservation threats 120, 137 41 diamond mining potential threat 140 ecological processes 121 ecoregions 119, 120 ecotourism development 132 fen wetland ecosystems 124 6, 127 fires 127 light geese overpopulation 120, 139 40 low-subarctic wetland ecosystems 124, 126 mammal species 129, 131 peat accumulation levels 122 127 protected areas 120, 130, 133 5, 137 rare and endangered roads and railways 120, 132 flora 120, 128, 129 size and location 118 19, 132 salt-water coastline 119 glaciation and isostatic rebound 118 19, 120, 121 human population and Pantanal 236 Hyemoschus aquaticus (water chevrotain) (CRB) 156 Hylochoerus meinertzhageni (giant forest hog) (CRB) 156 Inia geoffrensis (dolphin), Amazon basin 83 INTECOL 2000 conference species 129 31 scientific studies 120 freshwater runoff on queen), in the permafrost areas 125 6, fish species 129 forestry and mining Hydrodynastes gigas (water 120 swamp and marsh ecosystems 124, 125, 127 vegetation zones 121 water resources and hydrology 120, 128 jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), study of breeding in Pantanal (Projeto Tuiuiú) 219 jaguar (Panthera onca), endangered species (Pantanal) 222, 241 2, 249 jaraqui (Semaprochilodus insignis, S taeniurus), Amazon basin 72 wetland regions 122 Hudsonian godwit (Limosa Kobus ellipsiprymnus local economies haemastica) (HBL) (waterbuck) (CRB) 132 128 156 humid high-boreal “huemul” (Hippocamelus wetland ecosystems bisulcus), southern 124, 125 South American southern South peat bogs 435 American peat bogs humid high-subarctic wetland ecosystems 124, 127 humid midboreal hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), wetland ecosystems threatened species 124 (Pantanal) 220, 249 hydroelectric dams, diversions and Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris (capybara) water export 120, Amazon basin 83 132 3, 138 Pantanal 220, 233 41, invertebrates 131 242 Lama guanicoe (“guanaco”), 435, 440 large wetland systems anthropogenic causes of degradation 448 9, 450, 451 assembly rules for habitats 463 carbon sequestration and potential for release 455 Index carbon storage and the plant-community global carbon cycle composition 447 changes 449 52, centrifugal organization 449 52, 453 common characteristics of wetlands 447 conservation requirements 461 dams 448 9, 450, 451 economic value of wetlands 455 ecosystem health “indicators” ecosystem services and functions 455 efforts to save wetlands 452 environmental filters and ecomorphological traits 463 eutrophication and Burullus wetlands (RNB) 379 lesser snow goose (Anser 453 caerulescens productivity 447 caerulescens) (HBL) Ramsar Convention and site selection 453 128 Limosa haemastica (Hudsonian restoration problems godwit) (HBL) 452 size effects on wetland functions 2, 3, 128 lizards, in the Pantanal 237 loggerhead turtle (Caretta 4, caretta), Lake threats to wetlands Burullus wetlands 448 52 total global area 448, (RNB) 378 Lontra longicaudis (otter), 449 threatened species value of wetlands to (Pantanal) 241, humans 455 61, 462 water purification 456 61, 462 249 lotus in ancient Nile Delta 375 wetland types 447 loss from Egypt 385 wetlands construction to re-introduction in First invasive species treat waste water cause degradation 457 61, 462 (RNB) 375 Larix laricina, in wooded fens Louisiana black bear (Ursus 449 52, 453 functions future research plan global climate change 455 high rate of loss 448, 449 human water demand (MRB) 176 Lemmus sibiricus (Siberian lemming), WSL 19 20 leopard (Panthera pardus) (CRB) 156 Leopardus pardalis (global (ocelot), threatened treatment-wetland species (Pantanal) model) 457 61, 462 human water demand (PDE model) 457, 462 hydrological cycle 446 249 Leopardus tigrinus (oncilla), (Pantanal) 249 Leopardus wiedii (margay), threatened species locations and estimated (Pantanal) 249 largest americanus luteolus) (MSRAP) 281 2, 283 Loxodonta africana cyclotis (forest elephant) (CRB) 156 Lutra longicaudis (river otter), Amazon basin 83 Lutra maculicollis (spotted necked otter), Lake Chad 334 threatened species inherent value 446 areas of world’s Cataract Islands lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni naumanni), Lake Mackenzie River basin (MRB) balanced and cooperative management 169 70 477 478 Index Mackenzie River basin (cont.) bog ecosystem types and mean annual temperature and characteristics wetlands 168 distribution 180, bog vegetation 168 bog wetland types 170 2, 175 bryophyte flora distribution 183 bryophyte layer development 166 carbon accumulation and storage 192 carbon loss due to disturbance regimes 181, 182 non-peat-accumulating wetland types 172, 177 non-peat-forming wetlands 166, 167 non-patterned open fens 172, 176 non-patterned open permafrost bogs (veneer bogs) 173 non-patterned shrubby rare and endangered species 169 salinity and wetlands distribution 182 shallow open waters 172, 178 shrubby swamps 172, 178 Sphagnum establishment following peatland initiation 185 90, 191 Sphagnum dominance in bogs 168 substrate texture and peat landform type 193 fens 172, 176 180, 181, 182 classification of non-patterned wooded thermal season aridity different wetland fens with internal index (TSAI) and types 166 70 lawns 172, 176 wetland types collapse scars in non-patterned wooded permafrost bogs fens without 172, 173 internal lawns 172, economic and environmental resources 169 fen ecosystem types and characteristics 168 177 patterned fens 172, 175 peat-forming wetlands 166 fen vegetation peatland depth 192 fen wetland types 172, peatland initiation 175 hydrology and wetland types 181, 182 internal lawns as dating 185, 186 peatlands development 185 90, 191 permafrost and carbon indicators of habitat accumulation change 172, 174 5, 192 176 invertebrate biodiversity 169 large mammals 169 70 location and extent of wetlands 170, 171 marshes 172, 178 permafrost distribution 180, 181 permafrost initiation and bog formation 190, 191 polygonal, open permafrost bogs 170 2, 173 182 wetlands distribution 179 83 wooded non-permafrost bogs with internal lawns 172, 174 wooded non-permafrost bogs without internal lawns 172, 175 wooded permafrost bogs (peat plateaus) 172, 173 wooded swamps 172, 177 Magellanic moorland (MM) (Magellenic tundra) age of peatland complex 436 archeological value of peatlands 442 biodiversity 430 1, 432 4, 436, 437 Index bogs’ role in water non-raised cyperiod balance of forests (graminoid) bogs 427 429 30 carbon storage in peatlands 442 climate of wetlands areas 424, 426 climatic conditions peat extraction 440 peatland locations 424 5, 426, 427 peatland subtypes 429 30 peatlands embedded in where bogs can range of forest types form 428 427 complex conservation and protected areas 437 conservation issues 441 development of wetlands 427 endemic plants 432 4, 436 glaciation impact on landscape 424, 426 “guanaco” over population 440 habitat destruction by Sphagnum-dominated raised and blanket bogs 429 threats and impacts 439 41 timber harvesting in native forests 439 vascular plants diversity 431 4, 435, 436 wetland plants dispersability 437 manatee (Trichechus inunguis), Amazon basin 63 4, 83 maned wolf (Chrysocyon introduced beaver brachyurus), 439 40 endangered species indigenous peoples 442 integrated conservation strategy required 442 invasion by exotic plant species 440 juncoid bogs 429 location, extent 424 mammals and birds 431, 435 non-raised cushion bogs (Pantanal) 241, 249 Manis gigantea, M tetradactyla (pangolin) (CRB) 156 margay (Leopardus wiedii), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), endangered species (Pantanal) 221 2, 241 2, 249 matrincha (Brycon (Magellanic melanopterus), moorland) 430 Amazon basin 72 Mazama americana (red brocket deer) (Pantanal) 241 Melanosuchus niger (caiman), Amazon basin 83 Mississippi River see also Mississippi River alluvial plain; Mississippi River delta extent of watershed 272 location and size 272 major zones 272 Mississippi River alluvial plain (MSRAP) amphibians 279 81 bird-species decline due to loss of forests 295 birds 278 9, 280 bottomland hardwood forests 275, 276 bottomland hardwood forests, loss of 295 6, 297 character and relief 274, 275 endangered, threatened, and rare species 281 2, 283 fauna 278 81, 282, 283 flood-control projects 296 hydrology alterations 296 mammals 279, 280 origins and extent 273, 274 present status 295 479 480 Index Mississippi River (cont.) reforestation and restoration programs 300 3, 304 reptiles 279 81 tree-species diversity 275 vegetation types relate to flooding regimes 275 watershed clearance and water-quality degradation 296 Mississippi River delta (MSRD) amphibians 294 birds 292 brackish marshes 289, 290 coastal wetland restoration programs 303 6, 308 coastline formation deltaic cycle of growth, fauna 283 4, 292, 293, 294 fish and crustaceans 294 floating marshes 289 91 fresh marshes 289, 290 hypoxic coastal zone 300, 301 intermediate marshes 289, 290 mammals 294 nitrate discharge into Gulf of Mexico 300, 301 origins and extent 273 present status 286, 298 300, 301 298 300 deltaic plain extent and character deltaic plain formation 285, 286 deltaic wetlands loss 298, 299 endangered and threatened species types 286 91 salt marshes 289, 290 waters 300, 301 niloticus), Lake Chad 334 Nile valley toad, Lake Burullus wetlands (RNB) 378 Noctilio leporinus (fishing bat), Amazon basin 83 Numenius borealis (eskimo curlew), probable extinction 129 31 nutria (Myocaster coypus) 306 Nyctea scandiaca (snowy owl) (WSL) 19 20 seafood fisheries support 294 vegetation on beaches and dune/swale habitats 291 vegetation surveys 287 9, 290 Myocaster coypus (nutria) (MSRAP, MSRD) 279, 280 1, 305, 306 Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 Odobenus rosmarus (walrus), WSL 19 20 Oncifelis colocolo (wildcat), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 Oryzoborus maximiliani anteater), (great-billed seed endangered species finch), threatened (Pantanal) 240, species (Pantanal) 241 2, 249 283 4, 294 eutrophication of river 369 70 Nile monitor (Varanus 279, 280 1, 305, control, vegetation deltas 289 interventions 286, Dam Lake (RNB) (MSRAP, MSRD) destruction 285 6, increased by human 156 Nile crocodile, Aswan High salinity and elevation vegetation on active deltaic deterioration antelope) (CRB) reptiles 294 abandonment, and 287, 288 Neotragus batesi (dwarf 249 Osteolaemus tetraspis (African Nasua nasua (coati) (Pantanal) 240 1, 242 dwarf crocodile) (CRB) 156 Index otter (Lontra longicaudis) annual changes and Amazon basin 83 habitat variety threatened species 215 16 (Pantanal) 241, 249 anteater species 240 otter (Lutra maculicollis), Lake armadillo species 240 Chad 334 biodiversity loss due to otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) Amazon basin 83 threatened species (Pantanal) 241 2, 249 otters, in ARB 63 Ozotocerus bezoarticus (pampas deer), threatened species (Pantanal) 241, 249 human activities 250 (HBL) 129 31 Paleosuchus palpebrosus, P trigonatus (caiman), Amazon basin 83 Pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoarticus), threatened species (Pantanal) 241, 249 Pan paniscus (bonobo) (CRB) 156 Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) (CRB) 156 pangolin (Manis gigantea, M tetradactyla) (CRB) 156 Pantanal see also Paraguay River agricultural chemicals from soybean production 245 Amazonian biome influence 225 amphibian abundance 235 deforestation consequences 239, 243 4, 251 dominant plant species of different habitats 226 dominant trees in forest biodiversity of Brazilian habitats 231 natural ecosystems economic activities 223 bird-species abundance and diversity 237 40, 244 bird-species sensitivity to habitat disturbance 239, 243 Pacific loon (Gavia pacifica) deer species 241 bird-species vulnerability to habitat loss 238, 239, 244 Bolivia Brazil gas pipeline 247 carnivores 241 cattle-ranching threat 244 “cerradão” (woodland) habitat 228 “cerrado” (arboreal savanna) habitat 227 Cerrado biome influence 225 Chaco biome influence 225 commercial and sport fishing threat 250 competition for nesting sites in tree cavities 220 conservation problems 242 53 conservation projects and studies 253 8, 259 249 50 economic losses from over-fishing 252 endangered mammal species 241 environmental pollution 245 environmental threats 242 53 erosion due to deforestation 243 erosion process 243 fauna diversity and abundance 233 42 fire-damage threat 243, 252 fish annual life cycles 217 fish as important resource 234 fish diversity and abundance 234 flood forecasting system needed 252 flooding patterns 212 14 flooding patterns of the Paraguay River 213 14 flora diversity 225 forest habitats 231 gallery forest 231 general description 203 geomorphology 206, 207 481 482 Index Pantanal (cont.) grassland with patches of savanna 230 habitat diversity 225 habitat loss 223 habitats and vegetation types 224 herbaceous-plant diversity 82 human occupation problems 250 hydroelectric power dams 246 hydrological and climatic cycles 210 12 hydrological seasonality affects plants and wildlife 212 importance for conservation 205 importance for losses from uncontrolled flooding 252 major vegetation formations distribution 232 mammalian diversity and abundance 240 mercury contamination from gold mining 245 open savanna habitat 229 30 paleoclimatic changes 72 Paraguay Paraná waterway (proposed) 247 participatory management needed 253 Plan for Conservation migratory bird of the Upper species 233 42 Paraguay Basin introductory publications 259 inundation area 234 inundation dynamics 212 14 lack of education and (PCBAP) 226, 228 9, 253 plant annual life cycles 216 17 snakes, abundance 236 social and economic losses due to human activities 252 soil degradation due to human activities 251 soil effects of cattle ranching 251 soil erosion and sedimentation 251 subregions 224 sustainable use of resources 262 temperature and humidity ranges 214 15 toxin accumulation in food chains 245 unregulated tourism 248, 252 upper Paraguay basin 204 urbanization and sewage pollution 246, 249 50 protected areas 259 60 value of 260 protection inadequate vegetation around for endangered seasonal or environmental species 249 permanent ponds consciousness rainfall and climate 249 50 legislation-enforcement problems 250 life cycles linked to 211 12 reptile abundance 235, 236 river floodplains 205 annual changes river system 205 215 16 roads affect fish and litter disposal into rivers 246 wildlife 247 small mammals use 230 water pollution and conflicts in water usage 251 water pollution with human sewage 246, 249 50 water recycling into the atmosphere 76 location and size 204 seasonal losses from uncontrolled microhabitats health indicators 222 240 fires 252 waterfowl as ecological Index wetland characteristics 209 wildfowl synchronized reproduction 217 19 Panthera onca (jaguar), endangered species species (Pantanal) 249 Phoca hispida (ringed seal) (HBL) 129 Picea mariana (MRB) 168 9, 170 3, 176 Podocnemis expansa, P unifilis degenerating marsh stage vegetation and fauna 410 degradation due to degraded water from uplands 416 17 (Pantanal) 222, (river turtles), 241 2, 249 Amazon basin vegetation and 83 fauna 408 10 Panthera pardus (leopard) (CRB) 156 papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) distribution on Lake Chad 327 effects of water conductivity changes 330 in ancient Nile Delta 375 loss from Egypt and re-introduction 385 re-introduction in First Cataract Islands (RNB) 375 RNB 355 Paraguay River (Pantanal) flooding patterns 213 14 importance to Pantanal region 205 possible effects of El Niño events 214 route to the Pantanal floodplain 210 11 parrots, abundance and polar bear (Ursus maritimus) HBL, protected areas 120, 129, 131, 133 possible impacts of climate warming 137 WSL 19 20 polar fox (Alopex lagopus), WSL 19 20 prairie potholes (North America) absence of fish 405 agricultural drainage 397 8, 416, 417 amphibian breeding habitats 405 biomass changes during the habitat cycle (Delta Marsh) 403 breeding duck populations affected by droughts 407, 408, 409 changing water levels 393, 394 diversity in the classification scheme Pantanal 237 40 (Stewart and Pelecanus occidentalis (brown Kantrud) 399 401 pelican) (MSRD) climate 396 283 4, 292 conservation and Penelope ochrogaster dry-marsh stage geology 395, 396 groundwater flows 397 habitat cycles (wet dry cycles) 397, 398 habitat cycles (wet dry cycles) and vegetation 400, 402 hydrology 397 input waters with high nutrient levels 416 17 invasive animal species 416 invasive weed species 415 16, 417 lake marsh stage vegetation and fauna 410 11 literature 393 location and characteristics 393, 394 man-made drainage networks 397 8, 416, 417 modeling succession in plant species 402 nitrate and ammonia sinks 411 12 protection from nitrate removal from (chestnut-bellied drainage 412 14, farm land runoff guan), threatened 417 411 12 483 484 Index prairie potholes (cont.) numbers and total area 395 nutrient sinks 411 12 phosphate removal from water 411 12 plant and animal species loss 416 17 Prairie Pothole Joint endangered species (Pantanal) 240 2, 249 Procyon cancrivorus (crab-eating raccoon) (Pantanal) 241 Pteronura brasiliensis (giant otter) character in the ancient past 347 coastal erosion threat to Delta wetlands 383 constructions affect migratory animals 386 dam construction and loss of bivalve Venture 413 14 Amazon basin 83 population 387 primary production and threatened species environmental problems mineral cycling (Pantanal) 241 2, 403 5, 406 249 habitat loss as cause of regenerating marsh puma (Puma concolor), loss of species stage vegetation and threatened species fauna 410 (Pantanal) 249 restoration of drained potholes 414 17 seed banks in sediments for re-establishment 401, 402 sediment load in water increased 416 17 soluble carbon inputs and outputs 411 12 threats to preservation 415 17 vegetation and habitat cycles (wet dry cycles) 400, 402 waterfowl breeding and migration 405 8, 409 waterfowl usage changes during habitat cycle 408 11 wetland vegetation zones 399 401 Prinia fluviatilis (river prinia), endangered species endemic to Chad Basin 334 Priodontes maximus (giant armadillo), of wetlands 379 87 385 hydrological alterations and size of wetlands Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) (WSL) 19 20 Rangifer tarandus (woodland caribou) (HBL) 129, 131 red brocket deer (Mazama 380 invasion by exotic plants 386 location and extent 347, 348 loss of lotus 385 americana) loss of papyrus 385 (Pantanal) 241 loss of sacred ibis red knot (Calidris canutus) (HBL) 128 red-throated loon (Gavia stellata) (HBL) 129 31 red wolf (Canis rufus) (MSRAP) 281 2, 283 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) (WSL) 19 20 Rhodostethia rosea (Ross’s gull), endangered species (HBL) 129 31, 133 ringed seal (Phoca hispida) (HBL) 129 River Nile basin (RNB) Aswan High Dam Lake 348 biodiversity loss 385 385 man-made control of river flow 347 predicted effects of bypass canals 381 swamps affect water chemistry 383 swamps of the Sudd region of Sudan 349 water pollution sources 384 water quality and the new canal 383 water quality of Aswan High Dam Reservoir (Lake Nasser/Nubia) 384 Index RNB (Aswan High Dam Lake, hydromesophytic Lake Nasser/Lake meadow and shrubs Nubia) 372 bird species and abundance 368 birds affect lake and fish production 368 re-introduction of threatened plant species 375 submerged macrophytes 372, 373 climate 362 vegetation types 370 conservation status xerohalophytic shrubs 369 70 development project (canal) 369 fauna 367 fish diversity and 372 xeromesophytic forest 372 RNB (Nile Delta), Bahr al-Jebel topography and water flow 352 birds 358 canal projects for water conservation 360 civil war 361 conservation and sustainable use 361 extent of swamps in the region 351 fauna 357 location and history fish 357 economic of Delta wetlands flora and vegetation importance 368 375 Lake Nasser and Lake Nubia 362 location and description 362, 363 morphology and water-level variations 362 physical, chemical, and RNB (Nile Delta, Lake Burullus wetlands) birds 378 conservation status 379 endemic and 355 invertebrates 354 lack of plant species richness and endemism 355 location and climate 349 51 endangered species Machar marshes 351 376 mammals 359 biological fauna 378 characters vary fish 378 phytoplankton 354 364 flora and vegetation plant distribution and phytoplankton 367 reptiles 369 vegetation zones 356, 365 zoobenthos (Lake Nasser) 367 zooplankton (Lake Nasser) 367 RNB (First Cataract Islands) birds 373 conservation status 375 environmental conditions 370, 371 fauna 373 377 location and history 376 phytoplankton 377 reptiles and amphibians 378 zooplankton 378 RNB (Sudd region) amphibians and reptiles 358 Bahr al-Ghazal swamp 351 Bahr al-Jebel hydrology 353 Bahr al-Jebel swamps (the Sudd) 351 oil extraction 361 flooding 356 protected areas 361 Sudd wetlands importance and use 359 60 zoobenthos 357 zooplankton 354 river otter see otter river prinia (Prinia fluviatilis), endangered species endemic to Chad basin 334 river turtles (Podocnemis expansa, P unifilis), Amazon basin 83 485 486 Index Ross’s gull (Rhodostethia rosea), hawk eagle), endangered species threatened species (HBL) 129 31, 133 (Pantanal) spotted-necked otter (Lutra sacred ibis loss from Egypt 385 presence in the Sudd (RNB) 358 Saimiri vanzolinii (black-headed maculicollis), Lake Chad 334 Suddia sagitifolia (swamp grass), endemic to the Sudd (RNB) 355 squirrel monkey), “sumauma” (Ceiba pentandra), Amazon basin 83 tree of the Amazon Semaprochilodus insignis, S taeniurus (jaraqui), Amazon basin 72 sharp-tailed tyrant (Culcivora várzea 88 (Pantanal) 249 shoebill or whale-headed stork (Balaeniceps buffalo) (CRB) 156 (anteater) (Pantanal) 240 Tamarix nilotica (tamarisk), dominance in 358 wetlands (RNB) flammeus), 365 tambaqui (Colossoma endangered species macropomum), long 129 31 history in Amazon Siberian lemming (Lemmus sibiricus), WSL 19 20 sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei), Lake Chad 334 small Canada goose (Branta canadensis hutchinsii) (HBL) 128 snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca), WSL 19 20 Sotalia fluviatilis (dolphin), Amazon basin 83 Speothos venaticus (bush dog), 83 turtle (Trachemys adintrix), Amazon basin 83 turtles (river) in ARB 63 4, 83 in the Pantanal 237 Typha, competitive advantages in wetlands 386 Typha australis, distribution on Lake Chad 327 Ursus americanus luteolus (Louisiana black bear) (MSRAP) Tamandua tetradactyla rex), Sudd (RNB) short-eared owl (Asio Amazon basin 63 4, Syncerus caffer nanus (forest caudacuta), threatened species Trichechus inunguis (manatee), wetlands 81 tayra (Eira barbara) (Pantanal) 281 2, 283 Ursus maritimus (polar bear) HBL, protected areas 120, 129, 131, 133 possible impacts of climate warming 137 WSL 19 20 Varanus niloticus (Nile monitor), Lake Chad 334 241 Tigrisoma fasciatum (fasciated tiger heron), threatened species (Pantanal) 249 Trachemys adintrix (turtle), Amazon basin 83 Tragelaphus scriptus (bushbuck) (CRB) 156 walrus (Odobenus rosmarus), WSL 19 20 water chevrotain (Hyemoschus aquaticus) (CRB) 156 water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) First Cataract Islands (RNB) 373 invasion of swamp lands threatened species Tragelaphus spekei (bushbuck) (RNB) 356 (Pantanal) 241, 249 (CRB) 156 water queen (Hydrodynastes Spizastur melanoleucus (black-and-white Tragelaphus spekei (sitatunga), Lake Chad 334 gigas), in the Pantanal 236 Index waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) (CRB) 156 West Siberian Lowland (WSL) agriculture and forestry 45 permafrost cover 11 Vasyugan bog productivity 40 WSL ecologic floristic classes 36 anthropogenic vegetation 38 peat accumulation rates 40 3, 44 socio-economic value 39 total peat deposits 40 3, 44 WSL reed and sedge fen mire and salt-water biodiversity 14 bogs and fens 37 biodiversity in forests 38 aspen birch forests 35 freshwater aquatic climate and topography protected-areas 56, 57 climate and precipitation 11 conservation vegetation 37 economic activities 34 moss vegetation 38 endangered species 36 salt-marsh and grasslands (meadow salt-steppe criteria 56, 57 vegetation 38 protected-areas network 47 9, 51, 52, 53, 54 5, 57 forests, effects on global carbon cycle 43 freshwater accumulation 13 geobotanical zones and 34 grasslands 37 development conservation though marshes semi-aquatic vegetation 37 tundras 37 WSL flat eutrophic and mesotrophic mire zone aspen birch forests 33 climate and topography 16, 30 steppes) 35 location and extent 34 peatlands 36 soil types 34 vegetation 35 wildlife 35 WSL zone of polygon mires economic activities 14 homogenous and polygonal mires 18, 20 2, 23, 24 subzones 14, 15 endangered species 33 location and extent 14 geology, soils and relief eutrophic sedge-moss peatlands 18, 20 2, 23, 11 global carbon cycle 13, 43 history of peatlands development 13 14 fens and woody swamps 33 location and extent 30 peatlands 33 vegetation 33 human impact on 45 wildlife 33 hydrographic structure WSL peatlands and extent of peatlands 14, 18 industrial pollution 45, 46 location and size 11, 12 mire zones (peatland zones) 14, 16, 17 oil and gas industries 45, 46 peatlands formation 13 carbon pools and 24 rare and endangered species 19 20 vegetation 17 19, 20 2, 23, 24 wildlife 19 20 WSL zone of raised string bogs accumulation rates boreal forests 28 40 3, 44 climate and topography environmental functions 39 freshwater content and the global freshwater cycle 39 40 natural resource 39 16, 26 economic activities 26 hydrographic structure 26 location and extent 26 487 488 Index WSL zone of raised (cont.) peatlands 29 30, 31, 32, 53 rare and endangered species 29 Vasyugan bog 29 30, 31, 53 vegetation 28 9, 30, 32 wildlife 29 WSL zones of palsa mires economic activities 22 location and extent 22 peatlands 25 6, 27 rare and endangered species 25 vegetation 23, 26, 27 wildlife 24 western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) (CRB) 156 wetlands see large wetland systems species (Pantanal) 249 wolverine (Gulo gulo) (HBL) 129, 131 woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus) (HBL) 129, 131 white pelican, endangered species (Lake Nasser, RNB) 369 70 white uakari (Cacajao calvus yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus) (Pantanal) 236 yellow rail (Coturnicopus calvus), Amazon noveboracensis), basin 83 endangered wildcat (Oncifelis colocolo), threatened species (HBL) 129 31 ... marshes swamps, marshes Bottomland hardwood forest, Savannas, grasslands, riverine forest Bogs, fens, swamps, marshes Swamps, riverine forest, wet prairie Bogs, fens, swamps, marshes marshes,... al 2000) The list of classes The West Siberian Lowland shows the diversity of the West Siberian vegetation that exists across the Lowland Classes of tundra, forest, steppe, and salt-marsh vegetation... tussocky structure due to the occurrence of tussock-forming cottongrass and mosses Polygonal mires cover flat depressions on watersheds and well-drained places in floodplains The largest mire massifs