PARASITIC DISEASES - SCHISTOSOMIASIS Edited by Rashika El Ridi Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55787 Edited by Rashika El Ridi Contributors Ricardo J.P.S. Guimarães, Corina Freitas, Luciano Vieira Dutra, Guilherme Oliveira, Omar Carvalho, Maria José Conceição, José Rodrigues Coura, André Ricardo Ribas Freitas, Rodrigo Nogueira Angerami, Idowu Sule Akande, Monday Francis Useh, Rashika El Ridi, Nguessan, Orsot Niangoran Mathieu, Claudineide Oliveira, Rosimeire Oliveira, Tarsila Frezza, Vera Lucia Garcia Rehder, Silmara Nascimento Fernandes De Allegretti, Denise Silveira-Lemos, Matheus Fernandes Costa Silva, Amanda Cardoso De O. Silveira, Olindo Assis Martins-Filho, Giovanni Gazzinelli, Pedro Henrique Guimarães Gazzinelli, Helena Barbosa Ferraz, Maria Carolina Barbosa Álvares, Cristiano Lara Massara, Martin Johannes Enk, Paulo Marcos Zech Coelho, Rodrigo Corrêa-Oliveira, Andréa Teixeira-Carvalho Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2013 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Oliver Kurelic Technical Editor InTech DTP team Cover InTech Design team First published January, 2013 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis, Edited by Rashika El Ridi p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0942-6 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface VII Section 1 Epidemiology 1 Chapter 1 Multiple Regression for the Schistosomiasis Positivity Index Estimates in the Minas Gerais State - Brazil at Small Communities and Cities Levels 3 Ricardo J.P.S. Guimarães, Corina C. Freitas, Luciano V. Dutra, Guilherme Oliveira and Omar S. Carvalho Chapter 2 Epidemiological Survey of Human and Veterinary Schistosomiasis 27 I.S. Akande and A.A. Odetola Chapter 3 Community-Based Control of Schistosomiasis and Soil- Transmitted Helminthiasis in the Epidemiological Context of a Large Dam in Cote D’ivoire 49 Nicaise Aya N'Guessan , Orsot Niangoran Mathieu, Abé N’Doumi Noël and N’Goran Kouakou Eliézer Chapter 4 Schistosomiasis 63 Monday Francis Useh Section 2 Clinical Schistosomiasis 95 Chapter 5 Clinical, Laboratory and Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Patients with Acute Schistosomiasis Mansoni 97 Matheus Fernandes Costa-Silva**, Denise da Silveira-Lemos**, Amanda Cardoso de Oliveira Silveira, Pedro Henrique Gazzinelli- Guimarães, Helena Barbosa Ferraz, Cristiano Lara Massara, Martin Johannes Enk, Maria Carolina Barbosa Álvares, Olindo Assis Martins-Filho, Paulo Marcos Zech Coelho, Rodrigo Corrêa-Oliveira, Giovanni Gazzinelli and Andréa Teixeira-Carvalho Chapter 6 Spinal Cord Schistosomiasis 121 André Ricardo Ribas Freitas and Rodrigo Nogueira Angerami Chapter 7 Study on Schistosomiasis mansoni and Comorbidity with Hepatitis B and C Virus Infection 143 Maria José Conceição and José Rodrigues Coura Section 3 Drugs and Vaccines 149 Chapter 8 Tegument of Schistosoma mansoni as a Therapeutic Target 151 Claudineide Nascimento Fernandes de Oliveira, Rosimeire Nunes de Oliveira, Tarsila Ferraz Frezza, Vera Lúcia Garcia Rehder and Silmara Marques Allegretti Chapter 9 Solving the Riddle of the Lung-Stage Schistosomula Paved the Way to a Novel Remedy and an Efficacious Vaccine for Schistosomiasis 179 Rashika El Ridi and Hatem Tallima ContentsVI Preface Schistosomiasis is a major public health problem in 76 countries of the developing world, yet information on prevalence and risk maps is incomplete, and often contradictory. To correct this caveat, Ricardo J.P.S. Guimarães et al. created a Geographic Information System (GIS) database, containing all social and socieconomic factors, and environmental variables, such as snail distribution, vegetation index, precipitation, temperature, and sanitation, at small communities and city levels in the Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The database was used together with multiple linear regressions to estimate the schistosomiasis positivity index, and build a schistosomiasis risk map for Minas Gerais State. The methodology used in this study can be utilized to control schistosomiasis in the areas with occurrence of the disease, and can also be used to take preventive measures to decrease or eradicate the disease transmission. Akande and Odetola relied on community-based pilot control trials for obtaining correct and accurate estimates of schistosomiasis prevalence in Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Nigeria. Monday Francis Useh, in his chapter: Schistosomiasis, specifically reported that Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni infections have been widely detected in all parts of Nigeria although the former predominates. A total of 30 million Nigerians, 18% of 162 millions population, are infected with schistosomiasis, with the school age children carying the greatest burden of the disease. Of note, infection with S. haematobium was reported in all the regions in Nigeria with a prevalence as high as 60-75% among schoolchildren in some communities. N'Guessan Aya Nicaise proposed lasting solutions for fighting schistosomiasis in the Cote d’Ivoire, where urinary schistosomiasis, and soil-transmitted helminthiasis (especially hookworms), which infect > 50% of the population, prevail. The study was conducted in epidemiological context of large dam in Côte-d’Ivoire, in Taabo- village, a hyperendemic schistosomiasis locality located near Lake of the great dam Taabo, with prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among school children reaching 94% at the start of the study. Awareness campaigns and treatments were carried out by the school teachers and Community health workers. Sociological surveys were made before treatment to understand risk behaviors. Nevertheless, slight reduction in prevalence to 74% was obtained, likely due to continuous transmission of the parasite. It was noteworthy that there was no enthusiasm for the treatment, for the simple reason that these parasites are considered by the majority of the population as non-serious illnesses and less dreadful. The Chapters in the section “Clinical Schistosomiasis” are thus timely elaborating on the dangers not only of chronic, but also of acute schistosomiasis. According to Matheus Fernandes Costa-Silva et al., the clinical findings most commonly observed in acute schistosomiasis patients include fever, general weakness, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, colic, weight loss, dry cough and hepatosplenomegaly accompanied by a marked eosinophilia and leucocytosis. Additionally, acute schistosomiasis is difficult to diagnose, as the clinical findings may be confounded with a number of infections such as visceral leishmaniasis, typhoid fever, malaria, tuberculosis, viral hepatitis, mononucleosis and bacterial infections. Chronic schistosomiasis mansoni and haematobium are certainly even more dangerous because of their deleterious effects on the liver, intestine, and/or urinary bladder, and additionally may involve the spinal cord, leading to neuroschistosomiasis, as documented by André Ricardo Ribas Freitas and Rodrigo Nogueira Angerami. The proportion of patients who go from schistosomiasis to medullar neuroschistosomiasis is unknown. There are several indications that this disease has been under-diagnosed, and difficult to diagnose. This situation has been changing in the last years, particularly in Brazil, due to the improvement in diagnostic tools and increase of cases in patients of of endemic countries. Finally, chronic infection with schistosomes increases the patient susceptibility to infection with viruses, namely hepatitis B and C viruses as reported by Maria Jose´Conceição and José Rodrigues Coura in the last Chapter of this section. Accordingly, the Chapters included in the section “Drugs and Vaccines” are most welcome. Praziquantel is essentially the only drug commercially available and widely used for treatment of schistosomiasis mansoni, haematobium, and japonica. Claudineide Nascimento Fernandes de Oliveira et al. reviewed both the clinical plants that may display schistosomicidal activity and the schistosomes tegument structure, and found that fractions of plants belonging to the genus Phyllanthus L have powerful schistosomicidal effects via destruction of the tegument. The tegument lesions were thoroughly described using modified scanning and transmission electron microscopy techniques. In the last chapter of the book, Rashika El Ridi and Hatem Tallima proposed arachidonic acid as effective remedy against schistosomiasis mansoni and haematobium. The mechanism of action is likely the activation of parasite tegument associated neutral sphingomyelinase, hydrolysis of apical membrane sphingomyelin, and perturbations of the outer lipid bilayer, allowing access of host antibodies, destruction of the tegument, and eventual worm attrition. They further reported that several dogmas hinder the development of an effective vaccine, and provided rationale and evidence for the efficacy of a vaccine based on larval excretory-secretory products and Type 2 cytokines, such as interleukin-25 and 33, as adjuvants. The chapters of this book are intended to provide useful information and strong initiative for researchers and clinicians in the field of schistosomiasis and other parasitic diseases. At the end I wish to thank InTech, particularly Mrs. Ivona Lovric and Mr. Oliver Kurelic, for the opportunity to edit this interesting, important, and timely book, which I dedicate to the Martyrs of the Arab Spring Revolution, and to schistosome-infected children worldwide. Rashika El Ridi Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt PrefaceVIII Section 1 Epidemiology [...]... 2006;103(18) 693 4-9 [49] Guo J-G, Penelope V, Cao C-L, Jurg U, Zhu H-Q, Daniel A, et al A geographic infor mation and remote sensing based model for prediction of Oncomelania hupensis habi tats in the Poyang Lake area, China Acta Tropica 2005;96( 2-3 ) 21 3-2 2 [50] Yang G-J, Vounatsou P, Zhou X-N, Tanner M, Utzinger J A Bayesian-based ap proach for spatio-temporal modeling of county level prevalence of... it improved the correlation with independent variables 11 12 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis The analysis of the correlation matrix showed that some variables had non-significative cor relations with lnIp at 95% confidence level, and also some variables were highly correlated among themselves, indicating that those variables could be excluded from future analysis Since multi co-linearity effects... classification, Bayesian model, RS, NDVI, slope, LST - Schistosoma China - spp - S mansoni, GIS, spatial analysis and [65] clustering, Bayesian model, Mali NOAA (AVHRR) Bayesian models, NDVI, LST, [66] GIS, logistic regression S haematobium Biomphalaria sp S.mansoni Brazil - kriging, spatial distribution [67, 68] Biomphalaria sp S.mansoni Brazil - Fuzzy logic [69] 7 8 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis Vector... prevalence of Schistosoma japoni 23 24 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis cum infection in Jiangsu province, China International Journal for Parasitology 2005;35(2) 15 5-6 2 [51] Zhang Z-Y, Xu D-Z, Zhou X-N, Zhou Y, Liu S-J Remote sensing and spatial statisti cal analysis to predict the distribution of Oncomelania hupensis in the marshlands of China Acta Trop 2005;96( 2-3 ) 20 5-1 2 [52] Brooker S, Alexander N,... temperature, logistic [32] regression Oncomelania spp S japonicum China NOAA (AVHRR), Lansdat TNDVI [33] (TM) - Schistosoma Chad, spp Cameroon NOAA (AVHRR) ecology [34] 5 6 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis Vector Species Study Area Satellite-sensor Technical-variables Reference B pfeifferi, B S mansoni, Africa (sub- NOAA (AVHRR) SIG [35] senegalensis S Saharan Chad - environmental data [36] Cameroon NOAA... for the Schistosomiasis Positivity Index Estimates in the Minas Gerais State Brazil http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53500 Vector Species Study Area Satellite-sensor Technical-variables Reference - S mansoni Brazil - logistic regression models [52] and Bayesian spatial models Biomphalaria sp S.mansoni Brazil MODIS, SRTM regression, elevation, mixture [53] model, NDVI B glabrata S.mansoni Brazil - spatial... Weighted Regression, Generalized Additive Model, etc) Acknowledgements The authors woud like to acknowledge the support of Sandra da Costa Drummond (Funda ỗóo Nacional de Saỳde) and the support of CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientớfico e Tecnolúgico) (grants # 300679/201 1-4 , 384571/201 0-7 , 302966/200 9-9 , 308253/200 8-6 ) 19 20 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis Author details Ricardo J.P.S... Science & Medicine 1997;44(7) 94 9-6 8 21 22 Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis [25] Malone JB, Abdel-Rahman MS, El Bahy MM, Huh OK, Shafik M, Bavia M Geograph ic information systems and the distribution of Schistosoma mansoni in the Nile delta Parasitol Today 1997;13(3) 11 2-9 [26] Gong P, Spear R, Seto E, Zhou Y, Xu B, Maxzle D, et al Remote sensing and GIS for schistosomiasis control in Sichuan, China,... S.mansoni Brazil - social and environmental [55] data, regression Biomphalaria spp S mansoni Brazil - GPS and GIS [56] B glabrata S mansoni Brazil - kernel [57] - Schistosoma Africa - ecology, GIS, RS, geostatistics [58] Cụte d'Ivoire - socioeconomic data, logistic [59] spp B pfeifferi S mansoni regression, Bayesian model B sudanica, B S mansoni Uganda - spatial analysis [60] S Tanzania - social and ecological... regional model was developed by doing a regression model separately in each of the four regions formed by first applying the SKATER algorithm using environmental variables [74] The models validation was performed using the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Mean Squared Prediction Error (MSPR), given by [80] n RMSE = ồ ( Ipi - Ipi ) i =1 2 (2) n ^ where I pi and I pi represent, respectively, the observed . PARASITIC DISEASES - SCHISTOSOMIASIS Edited by Rashika El Ridi Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55787 Edited by Rashika El. obtained from orders@intechopen.com Parasitic Diseases - Schistosomiasis, Edited by Rashika El Ridi p. cm. ISBN 97 8-9 5 3-5 1-0 94 2-6 free online editions of InTech Books