Edited by Udesh Pillay, Richard Tomlinson & Jacques du Toit Democracy and Delivery Urban Policy in South Africa Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Published by HSRC Press Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa www.hsrcpress.ac.za © 2006 Human Sciences Research Council First published 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN 0-7969-2156-3 Copy editing by Lee Smith Typeset by Stacey Gibson Cover design by Farm Design Print management by comPress Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver PO Box 30370, Tokai, Cape Town, 7966, South Africa Tel: +27 (0) 21 701 4477 Fax: +27 (0) 21 701 7302 email: orders@blueweaver.co.za www.oneworldbooks.com Distributed in Europe and the United Kingdom by Eurospan Distribution Services (EDS) 3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2E 8LU, United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) 20 7240 0856 Fax: +44 (0) 20 7379 0609 email: orders@edspubs.co.uk www.eurospanonline.com Distributed in North America by Independent Publishers Group (IPG) Order Department, 814 North Franklin Street, Chicago, IL 60610, USA Call toll-free: (800) 888 4741 All other enquiries: +1 (312) 337 0747 Fax: +1 (312) 337 5985 email: frontdesk@ipgbook.com www.ipgbook.com Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Contents List of tables and figures v Preface vi List of changes to place names and/or boundaries ix Abbreviations and acronyms x 1 Introduction 1 Udesh Pillay, Richard Tomlinson and Jacques du Toit Urban and urbanisation 2 Urbanisation and the future urban agenda in South Africa 22 Doreen Atkinson and Lochner Marais 3 Urban spatial policy 50 Alison Todes One city, one tax base 4 Local government boundary reorganisation 76 Robert Cameron 5 Reflections on the design of a post-apartheid system of (urban) local government 107 Mirjam van Donk and Edgar Pieterse 6 Local government in South Africa’s larger cities 135 Alan Mabin 7 The development of policy on the financing of municipalities 157 Philip van Ryneveld Developmental local government 8 Integrated development plans and Third Way politics 186 Philip Harrison 9 The evolution of local economic development in South Africa 208 Etienne Nel and Lynelle John 10 Tourism policy, local economic development and South African cities 230 Christian M Rogerson Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Housing and services delivery programmes 11 Reaching the poor? An analysis of the influences on the evolution of South Africa’s housing programme 252 Sarah Charlton and Caroline Kihato 12 Free basic services: The evolution and impact of free basic water policy in South Africa 283 Tim Mosdell 13 Conclusion 302 Udesh Pillay and Richard Tomlinson Contributors 320 Index 323 Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za v List of tables and figures Tables Table 1.1 Projected population, number of HIV positive, AIDS sick and cumu- lative AIDS deaths for 1990–2015, ASSA 2002 (default scenario) 12 Table 1.2 Racial incidence of urban employment and unemployment, 2004 13 Table 4.1 Types and numbers of municipalities 81 Table 4.2 Councillor breakdown 92 Table 7.1 Budgeted municipal operating revenue (all municipalities), 2003/04 159 Table 7.2 Conditional and unconditional transfers from national to local government (R millions) 161 Table 12.1 Water Services Authorities providing FBW, by type 294 Table 12.2 Water Services Authorities providing FBW, by province 294 Figures Figure 1.1 Cities comprising the SACN and provincial capitals 4 Figure 1.2 Population and household numbers of SACN and selected secondary cities, 2001 5 Figure 1.3 Population and household growth rates of SACN cities, 1996–2001 6 Figure 1.4 Municipal population growth between 1996 and 2001 7 Figure 1.5 Average household size of SACN and selected secondary cities, 2001 8 Figure 1.6 Household growth between 1996 and 2001 10 Figure 1.7 The percentage of households without formal shelter and on-site water in SACN cities, 2001 11 Figure 12.1 Illustration of a rising block tariff structure 292 Figure 12.2 Proportion of total and poor population served by FBW, by province 295 Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za vi Preface This book is the first publication of an intended series of urban policy research publications of the Urban, Rural and Economic Development Research Programme of the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), which is a national programme of policy-relevant urban research. The book’s purpose is to document and assess the policy formulation processes that informed South Africa’s foremost urban policies since 1994. It provides an understanding of the origins and goals of the policies; the role of research, advice from international development agencies, and political and economic circumstances and agendas during the policy formulation process; a record of policy implementation; a critical assessment of the policies; and insight into how present polices are being adapted and future policies formulated. It is anticipated that the book will serve as a record of the first ten years of urban policy formulation processes in democratic South Africa and as a basis for comparative urban and city-based research among scholars worldwide. It is also hoped that the book will inform present and future urban and other policy processes in South Africa and elsewhere. The intended readership of the book includes an informed public, academics and students, policy-makers and government officials. The conceptualisation of the publication was taken forward with the assistance of a reference group, beginning with a workshop in January 2004. Members of the reference group additionally assisted the editors to review proposals from prospective contributors and, in a number of instances, commented on draft versions of chapters. At the time of the workshop the members of the reference group and their institutional bases were: Dr Doreen Atkinson, Chief Research Specialist in the Democracy and Governance Research Programme of the HSRC. Professor Robert Beauregard, Milano Graduate School of Management and Urban Policy at the New School University, New York. Andrew Boraine, Chairperson of the South African Cities Network. Mike de Klerk, Executive Director of the Integrated Rural and Regional Research Programme at the HSRC. Caroline Kihato, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Town and Regional Planning at the University of the Witwatersrand. Dr Xolela Mangcu, Director of the Steve Biko Foundation. Professor Susan Parnell, Department of Geography at the University of Cape Town. Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za vii Dr Jennifer Robinson, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography at The Open University, United Kingdom. The composition of the reference group, however, changed over time. One reason was that two members of the reference group chose to submit proposals and withdrew from the reference group in order to avoid a conflict of interest situation. Caroline Kihato and Doreen Atkinson are now contributors to the book. The determination of the specific urban policies to be investigated in the book started with advertising a call for proposals in the media, and by the use of widely distributed email. The editors sifted through the proposals and selected some for distribution to the reference group. With the recommendations of the reference group in mind, the editors selected a limited number of proposals and the potential contributors were asked to prepare detailed proposal submissions for a second round of assessment. This process led to the identification of the specific policies that would be investigated and the authors that would be commissioned to write these up. In two cases where there were no satisfactory proposals for policy investigation that the editors considered to be essential, the editors solicited pieces from particular individuals. Each proposal was assessed on the basis of three criteria: • Relevance of the policy as it pertains to urban development; • Academic rigour; and • Different perspectives that could be brought to bear in relation to South Africa’s evolving urban environment, and the scholars that could articulate this. The themes included in the book emerged from the proposals but, in retrospect, are self-evident. First, there are chapters that describe how government set out to restructure and build democratic local governments and to enhance their ability to deliver services and to promote socio-economic development. Second, there are chapters that assess how government has attempted to give effect to ‘developmental’ local government through integrated development planning and local economic development. Third, there are chapters that describe the policies for the delivery of housing and services. Two policies that might be said to be ‘missing’ are also included in the book. One provides an investigation of urban spatial policy and the failure by government to ameliorate the disadvantages associated with the ‘apartheid city’. Another concerns the absence of an urbanisation policy that is intended to reverse the consequences of past restrictions on the urbanisation of Africans and to guide the present unintended urbanisation consequences of many government policies. Unfortunately no proposals were received for urban transport and the recalcitrant authors of a chapter on urban renewal failed to deliver. A few acknowledgements need to be made. During the later stages of the preparation of the book, the HSRC and the Development Bank of Southern Africa drafted a PREFACE Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za DEMOCRACY AND DELIVERY: URBAN POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICA viii memorandum of understanding to disseminate the findings of the publication to a select audience of urban practitioners and municipal officials in order to practically impact on the field of urban development. This agreement included funding from the Development Bank of Southern Africa, which is highly appreciated. During the course of drafting the chapters, some members of the reference group reviewed and commented on draft versions of some chapters. In this respect, we have, in particular, to thank Robert Beauregard, Susan Parnell and Alison Todes for their many contributions. Adlai Davids from the HSRC Knowledge Systems has also to be thanked for his work on the maps. Finally, we thank our contributors for what are no doubt important contributions to the field of urban policy, and for their patience and forbearance with many editorial demands. Indeed, one chapter was taken through seven iterations. Three explanations are required for readers. The first is that the names of many cities and towns referred to in this book changed between 1994 and 2004. A list of old and new names is therefore included on the following page. The second is that reference to local government changed to municipalities after the 1998 Local Government White Paper. Contributors to the book generally use both references, depending on the timing and context. The third explanation is intended for foreign readers. South Africans are excessively given to abbreviations: RDP, IDP, DBSA, LED and so on. Whereas South Africans sometimes become so used to the abbreviations that they forget the full name referred to by the abbreviation, a foreigner only becomes operational in South Africa after he or she learns the abbreviations. The editors of the book have removed abbreviations when they occur only a few times, but in other instances please consult the list of abbreviations and acronyms for explanations. Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za ix List of changes to place names and/or boundaries Old name New name Cities Bloemfontein Mangaung Municipality Durban eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality East London Buffalo City Municipality East Rand Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Pietermaritzburg Msunduzi Municipality Port Elizabeth Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality Pretoria Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality Areas Vaal and Vaal Triangle Divided between Emfuleni Municipality and Midvaal Municipality in Gauteng province Witwatersrand Portions in City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and municipalities in Westrand District Municipality Secondary cities and towns Harrismith Maluti a Phofung Municipality Kimberley Sol Plaatje Municipality Kuruman Ga-Segonyana Municipality Mothibistad Ga-Segonyana Municipality Nelspruit Mbombela Municipality Paarl Drakenstein Municipality Pietersburg Polokwane Municipality Port Alfred Ndlambe Municipality Richards Bay uMhlathuze Municipality Former ‘homelands’ Ciskei Now included within the Eastern Cape province Qwa-Qwa Now included within the Free State province Transkei Now included within the Eastern Cape province Gazankulu Now included within the Limpopo province Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za x Abbreviations and acronyms ANC African National Congress CBD central business district CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DFA Development Facilitation Act DLA Department of Land Affairs DoH Department of Housing DPLG Department of Provincial and Local Government FFC Financial and Fiscal Commission GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution programme GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (Agency for Technical Co-operation) HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IDP Integrated Development Plan LED Local Economic Development LGNF Local Government Negotiating Forum LGTA Local Government Transition Act MIIF Municipal Infrastructure Investment Framework NGO Non-governmental organisation NHF National Housing Forum NP National Party NSDP National Spatial Development Perspective RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SACN South African Cities Network SALGA South African Local Government Association Sanco South African National Civic Organisation UDF Urban Development Framework UDS Urban Development Strategy UN United Nations Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za [...]... government and the need to align boundary demarcation, institutional restructuring, financial and fiscal direction and resources, all with a view to building democratic and developmental institutions A little has been written about the process of policy formulation and the research and other influences that underlay it, with the focus shifting from housing and urban form to governance and service delivery. 3... refers to the mass delivery of free housing and services within municipalities Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za In effect, the national, provincial (in the case of housing) and municipal and sectoral policies included in this book have sought to enable local government to undertake delivery, plan for delivery and implement delivery in consolidating democracy Thus, government’s urban policy has... framework, and the SACN and its member cities setting an urban agenda that increasingly influences secondary cities Responsibility for urban policy appears to be shifting to the cities Notes 1 For example, see Harrison, Huchzermeyer and Mayekiso (2003); Khan and Thring (2003); and Rust and Rubenstein (1996) 2 For example, see Beavon (2004); Tomlinson, Beauregard, Bremner and Mangcu (2003); and Beall,... finances to provide services and serve as developmental local governments Philip van Ryneveld contributed to most aspects of the formulation of local government financial policy and provides a detailed record of the changes in Chapter 7 As with Cameron, and Van Donk and Pieterse, he points to the central role of the Local Government White Paper and the municipal finance and service delivery legislation that... ability to pay for housing and services; and because these have immediate implications for national budgeting for the housing subsidy and capital and operating subsidies, municipal finances and so on Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za South Africa has experienced a sharp decline in household size and a consequent marked increase in the number of households Between 1996 and 2001 the average number... Cities comprising the SACN and provincial capitals Source: HSRC 4 INTRODUCTION Figure 1.2 shows the population size and the number of households living in the cities included in Figure 1.1 Johannesburg and eThekwini have more than three million inhabitants and Cape Town has close to that number Ekurhuleni and Tshwane follow, with Ekurhuleni having about 2.5 million inhabitants and Tshwane 2 million inhabitants... form, facilitating higher densities, mixed land use development, and integrating land 7 D E M O C R A C Y A N D D E L I V E R Y: U R B A N P O L I C Y I N S O U T H A F R I C A use and public transport planning, so as to ensure more diverse and responsive environments whilst reducing travelling distances Despite all these well-intended measures, the inequalities and inefficiencies of the apartheid space... ten years of democracy, the process of formulating the policies and the influences on them The process of urban policy formulation covered in this book begins with the 1976 Soweto uprising, pays attention to the intense struggles in the townships during the 1980s, and then proceeds to a close examination of prominent urban policies and policy formulation and implementation during the 1990s and on to 2004... into urban and rural households This view is debated and to some degree supported by Russell (2002) However, Posel (2003) and Cox, Hemson and Todes (2004) disagree with the view that circular migration is giving way to separate urban and rural households • The impact of HIV/AIDS on households is unclear AIDS deaths have picked up rapidly since 2001 but were not as profound between the 1996 and 2001 censuses... between 20 per cent and 38 per cent, with the three non-metropolitan cities and eThekwini and Ekurhuleni being at the top of the range With the exception of Ekurhuleni, it is expected that this is partly because their demarcation included former homelands The proportion of households in the cities without on-site water ranges between 15 per cent and 42 per cent, with eThekwini and the three non-metropolitan . use development, and integrating land Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za DEMOCRACY AND DELIVERY: URBAN POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICA 8 use and public transport. housing) and municipal and sectoral policies included in this book have sought to enable local government to undertake delivery, plan for delivery and implement