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Edited by Udesh Pillay,
Richard Tomlinson &
Jacques du Toit
Democracy and Delivery
Urban Policy in South Africa
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Published by HSRC Press
Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa
www.hsrcpress.ac.za
© 2006 Human Sciences Research Council
First published 2006
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Contents
List of tables and figures v
Preface vi
List of changes to place names and/or boundaries ix
Abbreviations and acronyms x
1 Introduction 1
Udesh Pillay, Richard Tomlinson and Jacques du Toit
Urban and urbanisation
2 Urbanisation and the future urban agenda in South Africa 22
Doreen Atkinson and Lochner Marais
3 Urban spatial policy 50
Alison Todes
One city, one tax base
4 Local government boundary reorganisation 76
Robert Cameron
5 Reflections on the design of a post-apartheid system of (urban)
local government 107
Mirjam van Donk and Edgar Pieterse
6 Local government in South Africa’s larger cities 135
Alan Mabin
7 The development of policy on the financing of municipalities 157
Philip van Ryneveld
Developmental local government
8 Integrated development plans and Third Way politics 186
Philip Harrison
9 The evolution of local economic development in South Africa 208
Etienne Nel and Lynelle John
10 Tourism policy, local economic development and South African cities 230
Christian M Rogerson
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Housing and services delivery programmes
11 Reaching the poor? An analysis of the influences on the evolution of South
Africa’s housing programme 252
Sarah Charlton and Caroline Kihato
12 Free basic services: The evolution and impact of free basic water policy in
South Africa 283
Tim Mosdell
13 Conclusion 302
Udesh Pillay and Richard Tomlinson
Contributors 320
Index 323
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v
List of tables and figures
Tables
Table 1.1 Projected population, number of HIV positive, AIDS sick and cumu-
lative AIDS deaths for 1990–2015, ASSA 2002 (default scenario) 12
Table 1.2 Racial incidence of urban employment and unemployment, 2004 13
Table 4.1 Types and numbers of municipalities 81
Table 4.2 Councillor breakdown 92
Table 7.1 Budgeted municipal operating revenue (all municipalities), 2003/04 159
Table 7.2 Conditional and unconditional transfers from national to local
government (R millions) 161
Table 12.1 Water Services Authorities providing FBW, by type 294
Table 12.2 Water Services Authorities providing FBW, by province 294
Figures
Figure 1.1 Cities comprising the SACN and provincial capitals 4
Figure 1.2 Population and household numbers of SACN and selected secondary
cities, 2001 5
Figure 1.3 Population and household growth rates of SACN cities, 1996–2001 6
Figure 1.4 Municipal population growth between 1996 and 2001 7
Figure 1.5 Average household size of SACN and selected secondary cities, 2001 8
Figure 1.6 Household growth between 1996 and 2001 10
Figure 1.7 The percentage of households without formal shelter and on-site
water in SACN cities, 2001 11
Figure 12.1 Illustration of a rising block tariff structure 292
Figure 12.2 Proportion of total and poor population served by FBW,
by province 295
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vi
Preface
This book is the first publication of an intended series of urban policy research
publications of the Urban, Rural and Economic Development Research Programme
of the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), which is a national programme
of policy-relevant urban research.
The book’s purpose is to document and assess the policy formulation processes
that informed South Africa’s foremost urban policies since 1994. It provides
an understanding of the origins and goals of the policies; the role of research,
advice from international development agencies, and political and economic
circumstances and agendas during the policy formulation process; a record of policy
implementation; a critical assessment of the policies; and insight into how present
polices are being adapted and future policies formulated.
It is anticipated that the book will serve as a record of the first ten years of urban policy
formulation processes in democratic South Africa and as a basis for comparative
urban and city-based research among scholars worldwide. It is also hoped that the
book will inform present and future urban and other policy processes in South
Africa and elsewhere. The intended readership of the book includes an informed
public, academics and students, policy-makers and government officials.
The conceptualisation of the publication was taken forward with the assistance of a
reference group, beginning with a workshop in January 2004. Members of the reference
group additionally assisted the editors to review proposals from prospective contributors
and, in a number of instances, commented on draft versions of chapters.
At the time of the workshop the members of the reference group and their
institutional bases were:
Dr Doreen Atkinson, Chief Research Specialist in the Democracy and Governance
Research Programme of the HSRC.
Professor Robert Beauregard, Milano Graduate School of Management and
Urban Policy at the New School University, New York.
Andrew Boraine, Chairperson of the South African Cities Network.
Mike de Klerk, Executive Director of the Integrated Rural and Regional Research
Programme at the HSRC.
Caroline Kihato, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Town and Regional
Planning at the University of the Witwatersrand.
Dr Xolela Mangcu, Director of the Steve Biko Foundation.
Professor Susan Parnell, Department of Geography at the University of
Cape Town.
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vii
Dr Jennifer Robinson, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography at
The Open University, United Kingdom.
The composition of the reference group, however, changed over time. One reason
was that two members of the reference group chose to submit proposals and
withdrew from the reference group in order to avoid a conflict of interest situation.
Caroline Kihato and Doreen Atkinson are now contributors to the book.
The determination of the specific urban policies to be investigated in the book
started with advertising a call for proposals in the media, and by the use of widely
distributed email. The editors sifted through the proposals and selected some for
distribution to the reference group. With the recommendations of the reference
group in mind, the editors selected a limited number of proposals and the
potential contributors were asked to prepare detailed proposal submissions for a
second round of assessment. This process led to the identification of the specific
policies that would be investigated and the authors that would be commissioned to
write these up. In two cases where there were no satisfactory proposals for policy
investigation that the editors considered to be essential, the editors solicited pieces
from particular individuals.
Each proposal was assessed on the basis of three criteria:
• Relevance of the policy as it pertains to urban development;
• Academic rigour; and
• Different perspectives that could be brought to bear in relation to South Africa’s
evolving urban environment, and the scholars that could articulate this.
The themes included in the book emerged from the proposals but, in retrospect,
are self-evident. First, there are chapters that describe how government set out to
restructure and build democratic local governments and to enhance their ability
to deliver services and to promote socio-economic development. Second, there are
chapters that assess how government has attempted to give effect to ‘developmental’
local government through integrated development planning and local economic
development. Third, there are chapters that describe the policies for the delivery of
housing and services.
Two policies that might be said to be ‘missing’ are also included in the book. One
provides an investigation of urban spatial policy and the failure by government to
ameliorate the disadvantages associated with the ‘apartheid city’. Another concerns
the absence of an urbanisation policy that is intended to reverse the consequences of
past restrictions on the urbanisation of Africans and to guide the present unintended
urbanisation consequences of many government policies.
Unfortunately no proposals were received for urban transport and the recalcitrant
authors of a chapter on urban renewal failed to deliver.
A few acknowledgements need to be made. During the later stages of the preparation
of the book, the HSRC and the Development Bank of Southern Africa drafted a
PREFACE
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DEMOCRACY AND DELIVERY: URBAN POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICA
viii
memorandum of understanding to disseminate the findings of the publication to a
select audience of urban practitioners and municipal officials in order to practically
impact on the field of urban development. This agreement included funding from
the Development Bank of Southern Africa, which is highly appreciated.
During the course of drafting the chapters, some members of the reference group
reviewed and commented on draft versions of some chapters. In this respect, we
have, in particular, to thank Robert Beauregard, Susan Parnell and Alison Todes for
their many contributions.
Adlai Davids from the HSRC Knowledge Systems has also to be thanked for his work
on the maps.
Finally, we thank our contributors for what are no doubt important contributions to
the field of urban policy, and for their patience and forbearance with many editorial
demands. Indeed, one chapter was taken through seven iterations.
Three explanations are required for readers. The first is that the names of many
cities and towns referred to in this book changed between 1994 and 2004. A list of
old and new names is therefore included on the following page.
The second is that reference to local government changed to municipalities after the
1998 Local Government White Paper. Contributors to the book generally use both
references, depending on the timing and context.
The third explanation is intended for foreign readers. South Africans are excessively
given to abbreviations: RDP, IDP, DBSA, LED and so on. Whereas South Africans
sometimes become so used to the abbreviations that they forget the full name
referred to by the abbreviation, a foreigner only becomes operational in South
Africa after he or she learns the abbreviations. The editors of the book have removed
abbreviations when they occur only a few times, but in other instances please
consult the list of abbreviations and acronyms for explanations.
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ix
List of changes to place names
and/or boundaries
Old name New name
Cities
Bloemfontein Mangaung Municipality
Durban eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality
East London Buffalo City Municipality
East Rand Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality
Pietermaritzburg Msunduzi Municipality
Port Elizabeth Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality
Pretoria Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality
Areas
Vaal and Vaal Triangle Divided between Emfuleni Municipality and Midvaal
Municipality in Gauteng province
Witwatersrand Portions in City of Johannesburg Metropolitan
Municipality, Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and
municipalities in Westrand District Municipality
Secondary cities and towns
Harrismith Maluti a Phofung Municipality
Kimberley Sol Plaatje Municipality
Kuruman Ga-Segonyana Municipality
Mothibistad Ga-Segonyana Municipality
Nelspruit Mbombela Municipality
Paarl Drakenstein Municipality
Pietersburg Polokwane Municipality
Port Alfred Ndlambe Municipality
Richards Bay uMhlathuze Municipality
Former ‘homelands’
Ciskei Now included within the Eastern Cape province
Qwa-Qwa Now included within the Free State province
Transkei Now included within the Eastern Cape province
Gazankulu Now included within the Limpopo province
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x
Abbreviations and acronyms
ANC African National Congress
CBD central business district
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DFA Development Facilitation Act
DLA Department of Land Affairs
DoH Department of Housing
DPLG Department of Provincial and Local Government
FFC Financial and Fiscal Commission
GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution programme
GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (Agency for Technical
Co-operation)
HSRC Human Sciences Research Council
IDP Integrated Development Plan
LED Local Economic Development
LGNF Local Government Negotiating Forum
LGTA Local Government Transition Act
MIIF Municipal Infrastructure Investment Framework
NGO Non-governmental organisation
NHF National Housing Forum
NP National Party
NSDP National Spatial Development Perspective
RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme
SACN South African Cities Network
SALGA South African Local Government Association
Sanco South African National Civic Organisation
UDF Urban Development Framework
UDS Urban Development Strategy
UN United Nations
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[...]... government and the need to align boundary demarcation, institutional restructuring, financial and fiscal direction and resources, all with a view to building democratic and developmental institutions A little has been written about the process of policy formulation and the research and other influences that underlay it, with the focus shifting from housing and urban form to governance and service delivery. 3... refers to the mass delivery of free housing and services within municipalities Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za In effect, the national, provincial (in the case of housing) and municipal and sectoral policies included in this book have sought to enable local government to undertake delivery, plan for delivery and implement delivery in consolidating democracy Thus, government’s urban policy has... framework, and the SACN and its member cities setting an urban agenda that increasingly influences secondary cities Responsibility for urban policy appears to be shifting to the cities Notes 1 For example, see Harrison, Huchzermeyer and Mayekiso (2003); Khan and Thring (2003); and Rust and Rubenstein (1996) 2 For example, see Beavon (2004); Tomlinson, Beauregard, Bremner and Mangcu (2003); and Beall,... finances to provide services and serve as developmental local governments Philip van Ryneveld contributed to most aspects of the formulation of local government financial policy and provides a detailed record of the changes in Chapter 7 As with Cameron, and Van Donk and Pieterse, he points to the central role of the Local Government White Paper and the municipal finance and service delivery legislation that... ability to pay for housing and services; and because these have immediate implications for national budgeting for the housing subsidy and capital and operating subsidies, municipal finances and so on Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za South Africa has experienced a sharp decline in household size and a consequent marked increase in the number of households Between 1996 and 2001 the average number... Cities comprising the SACN and provincial capitals Source: HSRC 4 INTRODUCTION Figure 1.2 shows the population size and the number of households living in the cities included in Figure 1.1 Johannesburg and eThekwini have more than three million inhabitants and Cape Town has close to that number Ekurhuleni and Tshwane follow, with Ekurhuleni having about 2.5 million inhabitants and Tshwane 2 million inhabitants... form, facilitating higher densities, mixed land use development, and integrating land 7 D E M O C R A C Y A N D D E L I V E R Y: U R B A N P O L I C Y I N S O U T H A F R I C A use and public transport planning, so as to ensure more diverse and responsive environments whilst reducing travelling distances Despite all these well-intended measures, the inequalities and inefficiencies of the apartheid space... ten years of democracy, the process of formulating the policies and the influences on them The process of urban policy formulation covered in this book begins with the 1976 Soweto uprising, pays attention to the intense struggles in the townships during the 1980s, and then proceeds to a close examination of prominent urban policies and policy formulation and implementation during the 1990s and on to 2004... into urban and rural households This view is debated and to some degree supported by Russell (2002) However, Posel (2003) and Cox, Hemson and Todes (2004) disagree with the view that circular migration is giving way to separate urban and rural households • The impact of HIV/AIDS on households is unclear AIDS deaths have picked up rapidly since 2001 but were not as profound between the 1996 and 2001 censuses... between 20 per cent and 38 per cent, with the three non-metropolitan cities and eThekwini and Ekurhuleni being at the top of the range With the exception of Ekurhuleni, it is expected that this is partly because their demarcation included former homelands The proportion of households in the cities without on-site water ranges between 15 per cent and 42 per cent, with eThekwini and the three non-metropolitan . use development, and integrating land
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DEMOCRACY AND DELIVERY: URBAN POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICA
8
use and public transport. housing) and municipal and sectoral
policies included in this book have sought to enable local government to undertake
delivery, plan for delivery and implement
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