The Grammar in Question
In late medieval England, grammar served as the cornerstone of liberal arts and elementary education, essential for clerical careers Understanding the significance of questions during this period requires an exploration of how medieval grammarians conceptualized and utilized them This analysis unfolds in three parts, starting with a theoretical examination of questioning as a linguistic construct, independent of social practices The chapter delves into Latin grammars by Priscian and his commentators, followed by a study of numerous English grammatical texts from the fifteenth century These works, particularly those in question-and-answer format, highlight the pragmatic nature of questions, illustrating how grammarians, from Priscian to John Leylond, acknowledged the importance of both regulated speech and everyday linguistic usage in conveying grammatical knowledge and syntactical relationships.
Secondly, the chapter turns to the process of question-and-answer associated with the transmission and examination of grammatical knowledge, known in England as
“apposing.” My argument about this practice is twofold: first, that students’ outcomes
The practice of apposing in medieval education significantly impacted schoolboys' reputations and their interactions with authority figures, highlighting their awareness of both the expectations set by schoolmasters and their capacity to disrupt the dialogue This study argues that the threat of violence linked to incorrect answers does not reduce the inherent instability of classroom conversations Given the close connections between students and their communities, apposing emerged as a concept accessible to the lay public Notably, this practice is featured in widely circulated vernacular texts, such as the Life of Katherine of Alexandria and apocryphal accounts of Jesus's infancy, where both figures, initially marginalized by learned masters, ultimately overturn power dynamics and assume authoritative roles This analysis focuses on apposing as a form of examination distinct from other questioning methods found in religious literature.
My analysis of Katherine’s debate with the fifty philosophers and Jesus’ dispute with the masters at the Temple diverges from the contemporary scholarly approach that views these interactions as university disputations I argue against a strict separation between opposing views and disputation, noting that many scenes are labeled as disputations in their texts However, since the content of these disputes aligns more with popular teaching rather than the complex rules of university debates, I propose that classroom apposing serves as a more effective framework for analysis The familiarity of the laity with schoolboy experiences, coupled with the violent elements present in hagiographical and apocryphal texts, suggests a closer resemblance to elementary classroom punishment than to professional university contexts Furthermore, these narratives frame questions and answers as tests of the protagonists’ education, rather than as competitive efforts to uncover truth, which is the essence of traditional disputation Ultimately, I contend that the narratives of Katherine and the boy Jesus offer a lens to reinterpret classroom dynamics, showcasing how student figures utilize questions and answers to shift power from their institutional authorities to themselves, thereby legitimizing their teachings.
This chapter draws significantly from the outstanding research on the history of grammatical thought in England and Europe, notably the works of Vivien Law, Martin Irvine, Suzanne Reynolds, and the extensive survey with translations by Rita Copeland and Ineke Sluiter Additionally, the contributions of David Thompson, John Miner, R W Hunt, and Nicholas Orme have greatly enriched the field by providing valuable evidence.
The study of textual culture from 350 to 1100 highlights the significance of grammar and literary theory, as explored in Martin Irvine's "The Making of Textual Culture." Vivien Law's "Grammar and Grammarians in the Early Middle Ages" examines the role of grammar during this period, while Suzanne Reynolds' "Medieval Reading: Grammar, Rhetoric and the Classical Text" delves into the interplay between grammar and classical literature Additionally, Rita Copeland and Ineke Sluiter's "Medieval Grammar and Rhetoric" offers insights into the development of grammatical and rhetorical practices in medieval education.
Scholars have increasingly focused on the connections between Latin grammatical learning and vernacular literature aimed at lay audiences, particularly in late medieval English devotional works Katherine Breen highlights the divide between clergy and laity created by the study of grammar, which was viewed as a formative influence on both linguistic and moral development This educational immersion was believed to transform individuals from disorganized to disciplined selves Breen distinguishes between the habits of laypeople and the structured rules of grammar, suggesting that lay individuals developed assuetudines that lacked the rule-based foundation of habitus Despite this, writers of Middle English texts from the twelfth century onward crafted strategies to provide lay readers with an alternative habitus, facilitating their access to a moral and orderly life.
David Thomson's "An Edition of the Middle English Grammatical Texts" (1984) and R W Hunt's "The History of Grammar in the Middle Ages," edited by G L Bursill-Hall (1980), provide valuable insights into the evolution of grammar during the medieval period Additionally, Tony Hunt's work on teaching and learning Latin in the thirteenth century highlights the educational practices of the time These texts collectively contribute to our understanding of linguistic development in historical contexts.
In the realm of medieval education, key texts include "Century England" by Boydell & Brewer (1991) and John N Miner's "Grammar Schools of Medieval England: A.F Leach in Historiographical Perspective" (McGill-Queen’s Press, 1990) Additionally, Nicholas Orme's contributions on medieval childhood and education are significant, particularly his work "English School Exercises, 1420–1530" from the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, which is particularly relevant for this study.
42 Katharine Breen, Imagining an English Reading Public, 1150–1400 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 5
43 Breen, Imagining an English Reading Public, 5
The influence of elementary Latin grammar on major writers like Chaucer, Langland, and Gower was crucial in shaping English poetics Unlike previous studies that focus on how literary elites adapted grammatical concepts for broader audiences, I contend that the practical norms learned in grammar schools became accessible to the general public through anecdotes and interactions with schoolboys and teachers This familiarity led to a popular interpretation of schoolroom examinations, providing a framework for understanding the literary scenes discussed.
The evidence from medieval grammar school classrooms is often fragmentary and primarily sourced from late fifteenth or early sixteenth-century manuscripts, making it challenging to accurately assess the interactions between schoolmasters and their pupils While we may never fully uncover the dynamics of these educational environments, this archive serves as a valuable starting point for projects aimed at recovering the spoken words of the past, prior to the era of sound recording technology Additionally, it provides an essential foundation for exploring the intersection between clerical education and linguistic practices.
45 Christopher Cannon, From Literacy to Literature: England, 1300–1400 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016) resources and lay education, with grammar school pupils as beginners seeking initiation into clerical learning
Late medieval grammarians primarily relied on book 17 of Priscian of Caesarea’s Institutiones grammaticae (circa 520) to understand interrogative syntax, which constituted a significant portion of the work known as De constructione or Priscianus minor Given the limited syntactic theory in Donatus, commentaries on Priscian emerged as some of the few in-depth explorations of syntax, making them popular choices as medieval grammar textbooks.
Institutiones grammaticae (IG) were used as commentary and foil to Donatus’ Ars maior; this effectively led to the marginalization of the last two books of Priscian’s IG, since the
Ars maior did not include syntax, but the recovery of Priscian's work on this subject was significantly influenced by Alcuin of York (c 735–804) Alcuin integrated material from Priscian into his grammatical dialogues, notably incorporating a substantial amount from books seventeen and eighteen in a collection of excerpts.
IG 48 Once reintegrated, the Priscianus minor, along with the Priscianus maior, remained
46 For an overview of Priscian’s theory of syntax generally, see Vivien Law, Grammar and
Grammarians, 5–7, 266–68 For a more in-depth study of the treatment of syntax in medieval Europe, which lies outside the scope of this study, see Suzanne Reynolds, Medieval Reading, especially chapter 7
Priscian's work, particularly in his Grammar Book XVII, highlights his extensive reliance on Donatus for commentary, despite Donatus not addressing syntax in his writings Consequently, the dissemination and understanding of Priscian's Books 17 and 18 were significantly less than that of the first sixteen books, even into the 12th century Additionally, Priscian's influences from Apollonius and Stoic philosophy, which are outside the focus of this chapter, are noted in the introduction of this edition Vivien Law also references Virgilius Maro in this context.
Grammaticus and Aldhelm stand out as notable exceptions to the widespread neglect of Priscian during the seventh and eighth centuries, as highlighted by Law in "The History of Linguistics in Europe: From Plato to 1600."
48 J Reginald O’Donnell, “Alcuin's Priscian,” Latin Script and Letters A.D 400–900 ed by John
In "Institutiones Grammaticae," Priscian's interrogative materials from Book 17 were repositioned by Alcuin in a way that became essential for the Arts Faculty curriculum at Oxford and Paris until the late fourteenth century The twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw a proliferation of commentaries on this text, which provided rich resources for emerging theories of language, particularly among speculative grammarians, known as Modistae, and the intentionalists.
Evasive Maneuvers: Inquisitio and the Lollards
Evasive Maneuvers: Inquisitio and the Lollards
The Lollards, a heterodox group influenced by fourteenth-century theologian John Wyclif, had their inquisitional records structured as questions and answers in the early fifteenth century However, a deeper examination of the questions posed by Lollards, both in trials and beyond, reveals significant insights into the challenge of identifying a Lollard This focus on the social implications of their inquiries highlights a key characteristic of Lollard identity, impacting their literature and the texts opposing them The differing perspectives on the context of questions and answers played a crucial role in defining Lollard heresy in late medieval England and contributed to the evolution of vernacular religious education and Middle English literature.
This study explores the Lollards' use of question and answer in conversation, adding a new perspective to the ongoing discourse on verbal and ideological markers that differentiate them from their contemporaries Previous scholarship has examined trial records and tracts to determine how specific theological propositions distinguish Lollard texts and affiliations Additionally, efforts to identify common formal elements within Lollard texts have contributed to this understanding.
194 To list only a few examples, see Patrick Hornbeck, What Is a Lollard?: Dissent and Belief in Late Medieval
In "England" (Oxford University Press, 2010), the author explores the diversity of beliefs associated with Lollards, resisting the tendency to generalize their ideology This examination highlights the individual variations in Lollard beliefs, offering a nuanced understanding of this historical movement For further insights, see Andrew Larsen's work.
In "Are All Lollards Lollards?" from *Lollards and their Influence in Late Medieval England*, Rita Copeland and Fiona Somerset argue that the shared literary postures of dissent and educational reform are more effective criteria for characterizing Lollard writings than traditional taxonomies based on textual features Their studies highlight the significance of the written corpus of Lollard literature while acknowledging the complexities of composition, possession, and the dissemination of heterodox material Additionally, trial records reveal that Lollards were interrogated about their spoken words and expressions This reexamination suggests that a conversational approach, integrating linguistics with literary, historical, and manuscript studies, enhances our understanding of Lollard texts and their networks.
In his chapter on “Lollardy,” Steven Justice highlights popular writing modes among Lollard writers, including translation, first-person accounts, and tracts Building on this, Matti Peikola explores the "tract" as a distinct Lollard genre by analyzing the formal features of the catalogue, which he suggests is the preferred form for both Lollard polemicists and orthodox inquisitors Peikola's work, titled “The Catalogue: A Late Middle English Lollard Genre?” appears in the collection Discourse.
Perspectives on English: Medieval to Modern, ed Risto Hiltunen and Janne Skaffari (John Benjamins
Publishing: 2003), 105–136 Regarding Lollard terminology and vocabulary see Anne Hudson’s formative article, “A Lollard Sect Vocabulary?” (1981), in eadem Lollards and Their Books (London: Hambledon
Press, 1985), 166–73; for Lollard use of Latin technical terminology in texts such as Omnis Plantacio, see Fiona Somerset, “Expanding the Langlandian Canon: Radical Latin and the Stylistics of Reform,” YLS 17
196 Rita Copeland, “Lollard Writings,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Literature 1100–
1500, ed Larry Scanlon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 111–124; and Pedagogy, Intellectuals, and Dissent in the Later Middle Ages: Lollardy and Ideas of Learning (Cambridge: Cambridge
Copeland highlights that the Lollards challenged the rigid distinctions between teachers and learners prevalent in elementary education, a dissent that is notably defined by the opposition from orthodox clerics Fiona Somerset, in her work "Feeling Like Saints: Lollard Writings After Wyclif," examines texts influenced by John Wyclif to reveal specific attitudes toward pedagogy and reform associated with Lollard beliefs.
In the context of historical accusations, Margery Baxter and Ralph Mungyn faced charges for comments made to their neighbors, highlighting the social tensions of the time For a detailed account of Margery Baxter's trial, refer to "Wycliffite Spirituality," edited by J Patrick.
Hornbeck, Stephen E Lahey, and Fiona Somerset (New York: Paulist Press, 2013); the Latin is edited in Norman P Tanner, Heresy Trials in the Diocese of Norwich, 1428–31 (Offices of the Royal Historical
Society, 1977) Details of Mungyn’s trial are found in Ian Forrest, The Detection of Heresy in Late Medieval
England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 177 pragmatics specifically, can offer a paradigm better able to track continuities between Lollard texts and spoken interactions
This chapter aims to identify the Lollards as a speech community, characterized by shared conversational techniques and norms of speaking within their social network By focusing on the conventional and conversational continuities and discontinuities in their interactions with bishops, priests, friars, and laypeople, the study draws on classical pragmatics to analyze these dynamics Utilizing frameworks from speech act theory and politeness theory, developed by linguists such as Austin, Searle, Grice, Brown, and Levinson, the research highlights the contrasting perceptions of Lollard discourse While Lollards intended their questioning to promote reform within the English church, ecclesiastical authorities viewed these norms as heretical challenges to established beliefs The analysis places Lollard texts alongside those representing orthodox, reformist, or devotional perspectives to further explore these interactions.
198 Jean E Godsall-Myers, “Introduction,” in Speaking in the Medieval World (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 6
J L Austin's foundational work, "How to Do Things with Words," published in 1962, laid the groundwork for understanding performative utterances In 1969, John R Searle expanded upon Austin's ideas in his essay "Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language," further exploring the intricacies of language and its performative functions.
H Paul Grice identified maxims of conversational cooperation in “Logic and conversation,” in Syntax and
Semantics, Vol 3: Speech acts, ed Peter Cole and Jerry Morgan (New York: Academic Press, 1975), 41–58
The foundational framework of politeness theory, introduced by Penelope Brown and Stephen C Levinson in their 1987 work "Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage," has evolved over time This theory emphasizes that a speech community is shaped by various representations from both external observers and its internal members, highlighting the dynamic nature of social interactions.
This study analyzes late-medieval insular texts that feature questions and answers as a form of imagined or reported face-to-face interaction It begins by tracing the evolution of speaking norms in pedagogical and confessional religious discourses in fourteenth-century England, setting the stage for a discussion on Lollard conversational strategies By comparing Lollard texts with orthodox sources, the study highlights the expected dynamics of questioning and answering that often get overlooked in polemical literature The research further delves into the motivations behind Lollard conversational behaviors, which are viewed as disruptive by their opponents, such as Thomas Hoccleve, John Mirk, and Reginald Pecock While these anti-Lollard writers criticize Lollard questioning as a deviation from orthodox practices, Lollard proponents argue for the strategic use of questions to identify trustworthy teachers who fulfill their instructional duties in faith Finally, the study reinterprets fifteenth-century Lollard inquisitions, showcasing how accused individuals often thwart inquisitional questioning, particularly through the lens of William Thorpe’s experiences.
Examining Lollard testimonies and inquisitions through a pragmatic lens reveals their strategic approach to questioning, confession, and church authority Figures like William Thorpe adeptly navigate inquisitorial dialogues, transforming them from judicial condemnation into discussions aimed at conveying Christian truths This analysis also highlights the relevance of these dynamics in "Piers Plowman," a poem rich in question-and-answer exchanges that engage with the social implications of religious education.
Middle English religious texts depict conversations between teachers and learners, establishing expectations for charitable relationships between the laity and clergy who facilitate access to spiritual knowledge Nicole Rice highlights that these texts, responding to lay readers' demand for deeper spiritual education, use dialogue to extend intellectual privilege from clerical authors to lay audiences Claire Waters contextualizes this tradition, linking it to thirteenth-century Anglo-French writings that emphasized individualized and interactive learning This approach allowed writers to customize their instruction for specific audiences Both Rice and Waters explore the evolution of the dialogic model in Middle English and Anglo-French vernaculars and its impact on clerical and lay dynamics The current study investigates how this model shaped the speaking norms available to the Lollards, examining a range of orthodox, reformist, and heterodox texts that share a common pragmatic framework.
In "Lay Piety and Religious Discipline in Middle English Literature," Nicole R Rice explores five key Middle English texts, highlighting the conservative nature of "Fervor Amoris" and "Abbey of the Holy Ghost," alongside "Book to a Mother" and "The Life of." This study, published by Cambridge University Press in 2008, delves into the themes of lay piety and religious discipline within these literary works.
Soul, and Walter Hilton’s Mixed Life which show themselves more open to reforming lay relationships through clerical models
In her work, Claire M Waters explores the mutual obligations between teachers and learners regarding spiritual inquiries in thirteenth-century vernacular texts She emphasizes the importance of cooperation in these interactions and analyzes the role of charity when norms of questioning and answering are established and upheld.
Disputing in the Parish
In her compelling discourse, Dame Prudence persuades her husband Melibee to forgo revenge for their daughter Sophie’s death, emphasizing that God is the ultimate cause behind all events, including their loss She addresses the inevitable question that arises from this reasoning, highlighting the importance of understanding divine influence in their tragedy.
In response to the question of why God allows men to commit such vile acts, I admit I cannot provide a definitive answer due to the complexity of divine judgment The judgments of Almighty God are profound and beyond human comprehension However, based on certain presumptions and conjectures, I believe that God, who embodies justice and righteousness, permits these events to occur for a just and reasonable cause.
Prudence acknowledges her inability to fully understand why God permitted harm to their daughter, recognizing the unfathomable nature of divine judgment She relies on certain presumptions and conjectures rather than logical proofs to conclude that God's mysterious plan is both reasonable and just While posing an unanswerable question might seem counterproductive, it allows her to present evidence supporting her belief in a rational explanation for recent events Her defense includes etymologizing Melibee’s name and interpreting the attack as an allegorical reflection of Melibee’s soul, reinforcing her argument.
1 See David Wallace’s chapter on Dame Prudence’s rhetoric in the Tale of Melibee in his book Chaucerian
Polity: Absolutist Lineages and Associational Forms in England and Italy (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1997), 212–46, for an account of the rhetorical terminology and preoccupations of the Tale of Melibee, as well as its source texts
2 Geoffrey Chaucer, “The Tale of Melibee,” in The Riverside Chaucer, edited by Larry Dean Benson (Oxford University Press, 2008), lines 1404–1408
Dame Prudence effectively guides Melibee towards moral action, emphasizing the importance of aligning his intentions with God's will Ultimately, Melibee acknowledges her "faire resouns" and commits to following her wise counsel, demonstrating a transformative moment in his journey towards righteousness.
In Thomas Hoccleve's 1415 Address to Sir John Oldcastle, he highlights the contrasting attitudes towards religious inquiry between the educated and the uneducated laity He notes that the English laity before Wyclif were not concerned with questions about scripture, sacraments, or ecclesiastical hierarchy, showcasing a perceived decline in understanding among contemporary laypeople Hoccleve illustrates this shift by presenting a series of questions that reflect the mindset of those who "lyued well" compared to the "Lewde calates" of the early fifteenth century, who, despite their lack of formal education, were capable of engaging in complex arguments about holy writ.
“Why stant this word heer?” / and “why this word there?”
“Why spake god thus / and seith thus elles where?”
“Why dide he this wyse / and mighte han do thus?” 4
Hoccleve’s Lollards raise critical questions aimed at understanding the Bible's wording, reconciling God's speech, and justifying His actions The final question introduces a speculative angle, highlighting the potential for alternate histories influenced by different divine motivations in human affairs Helen Barr notes that Hoccleve presents a portrayal of an orthodox past that reflects these inquiries.
“socially correct reading is figured as an activity in which no questions are asked.” 5
3 “The Tale of Melibee,” line 1712
4 Hoccleve's Works: The Minor Poems, ed Frederick J Furnivall and I Gollancz; rev edn Jerome Mitchell and A I Doyle, EETS e.s 61,73 (London: Kegan Paul, 1892), lines 155–57
Unlike Hoccleve’s nostalgic perspective, the interest in understanding God's motivations and actions is evident in Latin and Middle English texts beyond Wyclif’s influence I propose that Hoccleve's criticism of the questions in his poem stems not merely from their nature as questions, but specifically from their focus as why-questions seeking arguments about God's words and actions in the Bible Previous discussions highlighted the perception of Lollards as aggressive questioners, and this chapter explores the broader significance of these why-questions, particularly their connection to various lay groups, including bailiffs, reeves, craftsmen, and women, who represent a diverse audience for Sunday sermons.
Chaucer and Hoccleve illustrate the rhetorical power of challenging why-questions, highlighting how writers of both verse and prose expected lay audiences to pose speculative inquiries about the Bible and divine involvement in human affairs These questions served as a source of creativity for the authors While Hoccleve appears to dismiss these theologically bold questions, the way he dramatizes them actually enriches his poetry, transforming what he deems spiritually harmful into a productive poetic exploration Similarly, by presenting a complex question in "Prudence’s Return," he continues this tradition of engaging with difficult theological inquiries.
Chantelle Saville contends that Hoccleve's approach to Gesta Romanorum narratives creates opportunities for exploring "alternative possibilities for plot action." This perspective addresses academic debates surrounding future contingency and the nature of God's omnipotence.
The exploration of alternative possibilities in fourteenth-century philosophy is significantly illustrated in the works of Robert Holcot and Thomas Hoccleve, as discussed in "Alternative Possibility in Fourteenth-Century Philosophy and the Development of Allegorical Narrative" (Essays in Medieval Studies 31, 2015) This theme is further examined in Hester Goodenough Gelber's "It Could Have Been Otherwise: Contingency and Necessity in Dominican Theology at Oxford, 1300–1350," which provides insights into the interplay of contingency and necessity in medieval thought (Leiden: BRILL, 2004).
In her use of anthypophora, Prudence mirrors a common practice among late medieval English preachers, effectively persuading listeners by posing and answering her own questions This rhetorical strategy allows her to introduce persuasive evidence rather than merely demonstrative points While she may touch upon other question forms like erotema and epiplexis, the focus remains on self-addressed inquiries that she resolves herself, distinguishing this technique from conversational speech acts, as the audience remains silent during the sermon The endorsement of addressing audience questions dates back to Augustine’s De Doctrina, highlighting its historical significance in persuasive rhetoric.
Christiana emphasizes the importance of clarity in preaching, highlighting that a preacher must ensure his audience comprehends his message Augustine notes that while audience members can ask questions during conversation, this practice is often seen as inappropriate in public speaking Therefore, speakers should proactively address potential unspoken questions to assist those who may struggle to understand.
7 Anthypophora depends upon the fiction of a question asked then answered, rather than an actual exchange between two parties The Latin term ratiocinatio sometimes corresponds with anthypophora
“Anthypophora,” Silva Rhetoricae, ed Gideon O Burton, Brigham Young University www.rhetoric.byu.edu For the sake of this analysis I distinguish between this rhetorical use of questions and other types
Anthypophora stands out among rhetorical questions by resisting straightforward affirmations or negations that typically align with the speaker's viewpoint Unlike other rhetorical questions such as anacoenosis, which solicits the audience's judgment, erotema, which strongly affirms or denies a point, and epiplexis, which expresses chiding or grief, anthypophora engages the audience in a more complex dialogue, prompting deeper reflection rather than simple agreement.
“Erotema” and “Epiplexis,” Silva Rhetoricae, ed Gideon O Burton, Brigham Young University www.rhetoric.byu.edu This is a small sampling of the many forms of rhetorical questions in classical rhetoric
9 Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, trans by Rev Professor J F Shaw (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 2009), Book IV, Chapter 10, Paragraph 25
In this study, 154 utterances from a historical figure are analyzed, highlighting their significance compared to the questions found in other texts Both sermons and disputations are transient in nature, as even recorded accounts are often mere summaries of the original dialogue Later documents that circulated typically embellish the spoken words, reflecting the interests of the authors or other parties involved, rather than providing an accurate representation of the original discourse.
Anthypophora is a rhetorical device that acknowledges an initial disagreement between the speaker and a segment of the audience, aiming to bridge this gap by the conclusion of the speech Unlike university-trained preachers who are adept at formulating theological questions through scholastic disputation, the laity often lack this skill By employing anthypophora, preachers articulate the urgent desire for theological understanding among the uneducated, addressing the educational divide between laypeople and scholarly experts This technique raises critical inquiries about the nature of complex questions and the limitations of rational discourse Through literary experiences reminiscent of quodlibetal disputation, preachers effectively teach lay audiences the norms of question-asking, fostering a deeper engagement with theological concepts.
10 See Katharine Breen, Imagining an English Reading Public, 1150–1400 (Cambridge University Press,