The Art Of The Question In Late Medieval England

University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2018 The Art Of The Question In Late Medieval England Erika Dawn Harman University of Pennsylvania, erika.d.harman@gmail.com Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Linguistics Commons Recommended Citation Harman, Erika Dawn, "The Art Of The Question In Late Medieval England" (2018) Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2915 https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2915 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2915 For more information, please contact repository@pobox.upenn.edu The Art Of The Question In Late Medieval England Abstract This project uncovers the unwritten rules of the interrogative which acted as arbiters of power in religious discourse between 1300 and 1450 The central claim of the project is that scenes of question-asking dramatize the convergence of conflicting cultural and intellectual investments, as lay people leverage questions to negotiate social position, spiritual authority, and access to knowledge Viewed as intersections between lay education and clerical learnedness, questions show how late medieval authors incorporated contemporary social concerns about the development of an educated laity Despite the role of the interrogative in both communicating the laity’s aspirations for religious knowledge and reifying social barriers that denied them such access, there has been no extended study published on questions in Middle English literature Individual chapters approach questioning through the clerical resources harnessed to address the laity’s demand for religious knowledge, including rhetoric, grammatical thought, and techniques of scholastic disputation Each chapter examines a genre which represents an intersection between lay education and clerical learnedness: devotional guides such as those by Richard Rolle, Lollard tracts, lyrics, sermons, and elementary textbooks The writtenness of medieval texts obscures the exigent desire expressed by the laity’s spoken questions, as in Piers Plowman when Will intercepts everyone he encounters to ask where to find the good life I combine theories from pragmatics with literary analysis to reanimate the conversational, as opposed to purely textual, significance of these questions In doing so, I bring together linguistic and literary techniques to reveal fundamental assumptions about language use which marked social groups and united religious movements Degree Type Dissertation Degree Name Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Graduate Group English First Advisor Rita Copeland Second Advisor Emily Steiner Keywords British Literature, Medieval Literature, Question and Answer, Religious Education Subject Categories Linguistics This dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2915 THE ART OF THE QUESTION IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND Erika D Harman A DISSERTATION in English Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2018 Supervisor of Dissertation Co-Supervisor of Dissertation Rita Copeland Emily Steiner Sheli Z and Burton X Rosenberg Professor of Humanities Professor of English Graduate Group Chairperson David L Eng, Richard L Fisher Professor of English Dissertation Committee David Wallace, Judith Rodin Professor of English THE ART OF THE QUESTION IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND COPYRIGHT 2018 Erika Dawn Harman ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project represents the investments of a great many people who have encouraged me in the writing process I am thankful to the University of Pennsylvania English Department for supporting my coursework and scholarship, including travel to the British Library in London, Cambridge University Library, and the Bodleian Library in Oxford to conduct manuscript research I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my committee members, Rita Copeland, Emily Steiner, and David Wallace Rita generously shared her vast wealth of information about medieval universities and guided my engagement with Latin commentaries and sermons Emily’s advice was invaluable in helping me to refine my early ideas and shape the project; I hope the end result does justice to Emily’s characteristic enthusiasm for the style and performativity of the most unlikely Middle English prose texts David’s ear for the resonances of Latin and vernacular speech taught me to nuance my readings of the Middle English texts and enriched many of my translations I could not have weathered the many challenges of graduate school without my excellent support network Thanks are due especially to my friends in Philadelphia for the generous gifts of encouragement, food, lodging, and companionship that enabled me to complete this project and made Philly feel like home My parents, Ripley and Barbara Smith, taught me by example how to work hard and strive for excellence They have cheered me on at every step and encouraged me with their unconditional love Finally, my deepest thanks go to my husband and closest friend, Christopher, whose keen insights always sharpen my thinking Unwavering in his support, Christopher’s confidence in me lifted my spirits, and his company brought me joy iii ABSTRACT THE ART OF THE QUESTION IN LATE MEDIEVAL ENGLAND Erika Harman Rita Copeland Emily Steiner This project uncovers the unwritten rules of the interrogative which acted as arbiters of power in religious discourse between 1300 and 1450 The central claim of the project is that scenes of question-asking dramatize the convergence of conflicting cultural and intellectual investments, as lay people leverage questions to negotiate social position, spiritual authority, and access to knowledge Viewed as intersections between lay education and clerical learnedness, questions show how late medieval authors incorporated contemporary social concerns about the development of an educated laity Despite the role of the interrogative in both communicating the laity’s aspirations for religious knowledge and reifying social barriers that denied them such access, there has been no extended study published on questions in Middle English literature Individual chapters approach questioning through the clerical resources harnessed to address the laity’s demand for religious knowledge, including rhetoric, grammatical thought, and techniques of scholastic disputation Each chapter examines a genre which represents an intersection between lay education and clerical learnedness: devotional guides such as those by Richard Rolle, Lollard tracts, lyrics, sermons, and elementary textbooks The writtenness of medieval texts obscures the exigent desire expressed by the laity’s spoken questions, as in Piers Plowman when Will intercepts everyone he encounters to ask where to find the good life I combine theories from pragmatics with literary analysis to iv reanimate the conversational, as opposed to purely textual, significance of these questions In doing so, I bring together linguistic and literary techniques to reveal fundamental assumptions about language use which marked social groups and united religious movements v Table of Contents Abstract iv List of Illustrations vi INTRODUCTION How to Read a Question 13 CHAPTER I: The Grammar in Question .17 Theorizing Question Form 22 The English Word that Answers the Question 37 Apposing and Its Discontents 47 Concluding the Masters 69 Conclusion 91 CHAPTER II: Evasive Maneuvers: Inquisitio and the Lollards 92 Expecting charité 96 Lollards’ Inappropriate Questions 109 Lollards’ Evasive Answers 129 Langland’s Dialogues 145 CHAPTER III: Disputing in the Parish .150 A Brief Account of Quodlibetal Disputation 162 Pleasures of Asking “Why” 167 Cautionary Tales 172 Middle English anthypophora 182 Quilibet Christianus: Invitation to Inquire 189 Conclusion 200 CHAPTER IV: Rhetorical Questions in Middle English Lyric 203 The Powerful Echo of Biblical Questions 209 What am I to do? Lyric Action 233 Love and Sorrow 242 Bibliography 248 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Chart of Question Mark Forms in Early Medieval European Scripts 14 Figure Book List from London, British Library, MS Cotton Domitian A I 16 Figure Scenes from Grammar School 54 Figure Mary Takes the Boy Jesus to School 80 Figure Jesus’ Dispute with the Doctors in the Temple 82 Figure London, British Library, MS Additional 46919, fol 206r 216 Figure London, British Library, MS Additional 46919, fol 206r, Refrain 217 vii INTRODUCTION When penning the Preface to his translation of Genesis (c.992–1002), Aelfric worried that anyone reading his English without access to the Latin text might be led into spiritual error There was a danger, he thought, that readers would expect the translation to support the same rigorous exegetical treatments as the Latin, because ỵincỵ ỵam ungelổredum ỵổt eall ỵổt andgit beo belocen on ỵổre anfealdan gerecednisse [the unlearned think that all the sense is inclosed in the simple narrative].1 The historical level of the Genesis narrative, “nærolice gesett” [very narrowly composed], does not suffice to authorize all of the spiritual meaning of Genesis (“gastlice understandan” or the “gastlicum angite”); the “anfealdan gerecednisse” [one-fold narrative] cannot support the “menigfeald getacnung” [manifold signification].2 Even rendering the biblical text as closely as possible may not avoid misinterpretation, given that Latin and English not have ane wisan on ỵổre sprổc fadunge [one means of ordering speech].3 Several centuries later, Orm registers similar concerns about Englishing biblical material in his Ormulum (c.1180), advising that “whase mot to laewedd follc / Larspell off Goddspell tellenn, / He mot wel ekenn maniʒ word / Amang Goddspelless wordess” [For whoever would to lewed folk / Learning from the Gospels tell, / He must add many words / Among the Gospels' words].4 As efforts to educate the laity intensified and the numbers of religiously ambitious lay people increased, anxieties about spiritual errors arising from lay ignorance persisted The author of the Aelfric, Preface to Genesis and Libellus de Veteri Testamento et Novi: The Old English Heptateuch and Ælfric’s Libellus de Veteri Testamento et Novi: Volume One: Introduction and Text, ed Richard Marsden, EETS o.s 330 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), lines 43–46 My translation Aelfric, Preface to Genesis, lines 95, 40, 96, 46, and 91 Aelfric, Preface to Genesis, line 100 Holt, Robert The Ormulum: With the Notes and Glossary of Dr R.M White (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1878), lines 55–58 ——— The History of Linguistics in Europe: From Plato to 1600 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 Lawton, David “Englishing the Bible, 1066–1549.” In The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, edited by David Wallace, 454–82 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 ——— “The Bible and the Biblical in English, from Caedmon to 1550,” in The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English, Volume One: To 1500, edited by Roger Ellis, 193–233 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008 ——— Voice in Later Medieval English Literature: Public Interiorities Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017 Lewis, Anna “Give the Reason for the Hope That You Have: Reginald Pecock’s Challenge to (Non)Disputing Lollards.” Studies in Philology, 112 (2015): 39–67 Lim, Richard Public Disputation, Power, and Social Order in Late Antiquity Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995 Lindenbaum, Sheila “Kirsty Campbell, The Call to Read: Reginald Pecock’s Books and Textual Communities.” Modern Philology 112, no (August 1, 2014): E27–30 ——— “London Texts and Literate Practice.” In The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, edited by David Wallace, 284–309 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999 Little, Katherine C “Catechesis and Castigation: Sin in the Wycliffite Sermon Cycle.” Traditio 54 (1999): 213–44 ——— Confession and Resistance: Defining the Self in Late Medieval England Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006 282 Machan, Timothy William English in the Middle Ages Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003 ———, ed Imagining Medieval English: Language Structures and Theories, 500–1500 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016 ——— Textual Criticism and Middle English Texts Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1994 Machan, Timothy William, and Charles T Scott, eds English in Its Social Contexts: Essays in Historical Sociolinguistics Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992 Macovski, Michael Dialogue and Critical Discourse: Language, Culture, Critical Theory Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997 Matlock, Wendy “The Feminine Flesh in the Disputacione betwyx the Body and Wormes.” In The Ends of the Body: Identity and Community in Medieval Culture, edited by Suzanne Conklin Akbari and Jill Ross, 260–82 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013 Marenbon, John “Robert Holcot and the Pagan Philosophers.” In Britannia Latina: Latin in the Culture of Great Britain from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century, edited by Charles Burnett and Nicholas Mann, 55–67 London-Turin: The Warburg Institute, 2005 Marx, C William The Index of Middle English Prose: Handlist XIV: Manuscripts in the National Library of Wales (Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru), Aberystwyth Vol 14 Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1999 Mazzon, Gabriella Interactive Dialogue Sequences in Middle English Drama Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 2009 283 ——— “Now What? 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After tracing the treatment of the interrogative through the Latin grammars of Priscian and his commentators, the chapter will examine the treatment of the interrogative in the profusion of English