Problemstatement
Childl a b o r i s describedast h e engagemento f childreni n v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s (paido r unpaid)thatkeepthemfromtheirchildhood.AccordingtoGlobalChildLaborTrends,therearea p p r o x i m a t e l y 10.6percentofchildrenattheageof5–
17intheworldparticipateinworkforce.FollowingthefirstNationalChi ld LaborSurvey in2014,t hisnumber inVietnamis about9.6 percent.Mostofthemlivinginthecountryside,beinginvolvei n agriculturalactivitiesortheirf a m i l y businessesover42hoursperweek.Consequently,around9 6.2percentofthemwerenotgoingto school.
Child labor poses significant disadvantages for children's development, primarily due to the increased risks to their physical and mental health Jobs typically filled by children are often unskilled and associated with poor working conditions, leading to potential occupational injuries from hazardous equipment, heavy loads, or exposure to toxins Historically, child labor is linked to illegal activities such as slavery, drug trafficking, child prostitution, and human trafficking, which inflict lasting physical and mental trauma on affected children.
14ages,childlabor in this countryaccountsfor
Child labor remains a significant issue globally, with approximately 28% of working children suffering injuries, particularly in regions like the Middle East, North Africa, and East Asia, where the rate is around 10% According to the International Labor Organization, a study of 26 countries revealed that a quarter of working children experience injuries In the United States, industries employing children report higher injury rates than average In Vietnam, a report from the Hanoi School of Public Health indicated that around 23,000 children were injured by sharp objects, with half of these injuries occurring while the children were working Notably, over 60% of injuries among young workers, particularly those aged 14 and older, are caused by machines A 2001 investigation by the Ho Chi Minh City Department of Labor found that child labor issues persist in at least 7 out of 24 districts in Vietnam, especially in rural areas More than 90% of companies employing children do so without legal licenses, subjecting them to hazardous working conditions, particularly in gold mines, timber operations, and cargo transport Additionally, a survey by the Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme revealed that 43% of children aged 5-14 and 51% of those aged 15-17 in Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia, and Vietnam are engaged in child labor.
17aresufferingdangerousconditionsattheirwork.In2015,TheGuardiandocumentedthatabout 3000childreninVietnamweretraffickedtotheUKforworkinganddebtpayingpurpose, withregardtoillegalbusinessessuchasbrothels orcannabisfarms.
Theseconddrawbackofchildemploymenti s t o preventchildrenf r o m t h e i r childhoodt h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e T h e facti s , childrenw i l l m i s s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o attendschoolandt o acq uireacademiceducation.Theyalsohavenotimeplayingoutsidewiththoseatthesameage.Int u r n t h e s e factorsl e a d t o t h e statementt h a t childrena r e l i m i t e d f o r developingf u l l y t h e i r understa ndings,awareness andknowledge.
Education is crucial for the long-term growth of individuals, particularly children, as it equips them with the knowledge and skills necessary to thrive in a competitive labor market Higher education opens up more opportunities, allowing children to develop a comprehensive understanding of various fields This knowledge not only helps them avoid past mistakes but also enables them to build on previous achievements Additionally, extended time in school enhances essential skills such as responsibility, time management, discipline, organization, and social interaction, significantly contributing to their future success and quality of life On a national level, education is a key driver of sustainability, economic development, and social welfare Both developed and developing countries prioritize improving the capacity and quality of their human resources, investing substantial amounts in human capital and raising awareness about the benefits of acquiring knowledge.
Educational achievement refers to the instructional goals or learning objectives within educational settings, such as schools, colleges, and universities It is measured by the outcomes individuals achieve through learning activities, demonstrated by their knowledge, understanding, and skills in specific areas like literacy, numeracy, science, and art These achievements are often quantified through scores, grades, academic degrees, and educational certificates Rather than merely indicating participation in education, educational achievement reflects an individual's actual capabilities It plays a crucial role in standardized assessments to evaluate student performance, influences household decisions regarding a child's educational continuation, and enhances children's motivation to engage in learning.
Researchobjectivesandmethods
This study investigates the direct and indirect effects of child labor on educational achievement, particularly focusing on mathematics performance among children in Vietnam Educational achievement is a crucial factor influencing long-term development and quality of life Therefore, exploring the impact of child labor on education is essential Previous research primarily focused on school attendance and enrollment as indicators of learning achievement, which may overlook the detrimental effects of child labor This study utilizes mathematics performance as a new measure of educational achievement, providing a more accurate assessment By incorporating a comprehensive set of control variables, the results identify individual, household, and schooling characteristics that potentially affect educational outcomes alongside child labor For instance, older children tend to outperform younger ones in both work and learning due to better physical health Ultimately, this research sheds light on the consequences of child labor on human growth and learning in a developing country like Vietnam, offering valuable insights for policymakers to create effective strategies addressing child labor and its impact on education.
This study utilizes the empirical model established by Heady (2000) to analyze Young Lives Round 4 data from Vietnam, focusing on 839 children aged 11 to 20 The total effect of child labor on educational achievement is assessed by regressing educational outcomes while excluding schooling attributes from the equations, controlling for individual and household characteristics Additionally, the direct effect is examined by keeping schooling attributes constant The estimations employ Ordinal Least Squares (OLS) and Two-Stage Least Squares with instrumental variables for robustness The study anticipates that poor educational performance is influenced by child labor, with varying negative impacts observed in urban versus rural areas.
Structureofthesis
Thisstudyisdividedintofivemainsectorsfollowed:Theliteraturereviewrelatedtotheresea rchproblemsandmethodologiesw i l l b e s h o w n i n s e c t i o n II.S e c t i o n IIId e s c r i b e s t h e theory,chosenempiricalmodel, datasampleanddatarequirementsusedinthisstudy,plusthesuggest ionofpotentialproblems andsolutions SectionIVreportstheresults ofregressionsaswellast ests.Finally,sectionVconcludesomeremarks,includingmainfindings,policyimplicationsandli mitationsappearedin thisstudy.
Thischapterp r o v i d e t h e theoreticalframeworkaboutt h e decisioni n whetherchildrent a k e p a r t i n l a b o r forceo r continuet h e i r educationi s m a d e w i t h i n householdaswellast h e corre lationbetweenchildworkandeducationalachievementofchildren.Afterthat,somerelatedstudiesandre searchesarediscussedforthepurposeoffurtherunderstandingsaboutthisacademic field.
Theoreticalframework
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), child labor is defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, and dignity, and is harmful to their physical and mental development (ILO, 2004) Heady (2000) described child labor as both paid and unpaid activities that occur in the labor market as well as on household farms or in companies, while excluding domestic work such as caring for ill family members, cleaning, and cooking He employed various questions to assess children's economic activities, including whether they had worked in the past twelve months and the number of weeks and hours worked Mavrokonstantis (2011) emphasized that child labor should be viewed as economic work, encompassing both paid activities outside the household and unpaid activities within it.
Theeducationala c h i e v e m e n t o f a childi s t h e indicatoro f t h e schoolo u t p u t o f o n e i n d i v i d u a l , whichisderivedfromaneducationalproductionfunction, giventhestudentinp uts.A n educationalproductionfunctionisdeterminedasfollows:
WhereErepresentstheschooloutputofastudent,inothersays,theeducationalachievementof astudent.X1includesfactorsaroundtheschoolenvironment,suchastheteachingmethodsandmaterials,the schoolinfrastructures,thelengthoftimethatstudentuseforschooling.X 2 c o m p r i s e s t h e environ mentalinfluenceso n educationo u t s i d e t h e school,likeeducationalbackgroundso f parents,o r m o t i v a t i o n f o r e d u c a t i o n o f a s t u d e n t X 3 representsfactorswhichmeasurethe initiallevelorientedtowards learningof student.
Theintensityofchildlabor,whichismeasuredbythetimeallocatedoneconomicworks,t h e o r e t i c a l l y affecteducationalachievementfollowing numerousways.Ontheonehand,childl a b o r w i l l reduceeducationalo u t c o m e o f a c h i l d d u e t o t h e factt h a t t i m e allocationi s scarcereso urce,thustheincreaseinhoursworkedwillleadtothedecreaseininputfactorsofeducationalproducti onfunction,suchashoursspentonattendingschoolsorextraclasses,andh o u r s spentonacc omplishinghomework.Additionally,workingcouldcauseexhaustion,lackofe n e r g y andabilityt o learnacademic knowledge.
Ontheotherhand,childlaborisconsideredtoenhancetheeducationalperformanceofchildre nbyallowingthemtoapplyacademicknowledgetheyhavelearntatschoolinreallife.M o r e thant his,workingcouldprovidechildrennotonlyspecificexperiencesrelatedtojobs,butalsoa n u m b e r o f s o f t s k i l l s suchast i m e management,responsibility,communication,confidence,problems o l v i n g , etc.Int u r n , t h e s e elementsw i l l helpt o increaset h e educationalo u t c o m e ofchildrenin theirschools.
Alternatively,childlaborcouldhavenoeffectoneducational achievementiftheincidence ofchildworkis substantiallow,orifchildrenknowhowtoarrangeefficiently theirt i m e betwee nschoolingandworking.
Educational achievement, or academic performance, refers to the short- or long-term educational goals that an individual attains through their engagement in education The level of a child's educational performance significantly influences their future income and living conditions, often more so than the number of years spent in school Educational achievement is typically assessed through examination scores or tests that evaluate cognitive skills, including verbal and mathematical abilities For instance, Heady (2000) utilized results from various reading and mathematics tests in his survey to measure the educational achievement of children in Ghana.
( 2 0 0 6 ) , similarly,usedt h e mathematicsandlanguaget e s t scoreso f childrenonthirdandfourthyearp rimaryschoolsinnineLatinAmericancountries.Bezerraetal.
Reviewofempiricalstudies
Research indicates that various determinants simultaneously influence child labor and education Jensen and Nielsen (1997) highlight that both economic and sociological factors play a crucial role in the choices families in Zambia make regarding children's schooling and work For example, impoverished families often keep their children out of school Additionally, limitations in capital markets and the employment status of household heads significantly affect children's school participation Canagarajah and Coulombe (1997) further establish a strong positive correlation between household welfare and school attendance Their findings suggest that parental attitudes towards education enhance children's school engagement while reducing child labor This relationship is also supported by Khanam (2004), who analyzed a sample of 1,628 Bangladeshi children aged 5 and older.
17yearsinruralarea.Ray’s(2000)supporttheevidencethatthedifferenceinindividualcharacteristi cs,suchasgender,couldexplainthedifferenceinschoolingdecisionincaseofPakistanandPeru.Fore xample,the10–14yearsoldgirlsinPakistanseemt o leavetheirschoolandtakepartinlaborforce.
The debate surrounding the impact of child labor on education is supported by numerous studies Some research indicates that working at an early age can actually boost school enrollment For instance, Mortimer and Johnson (1997) argue that children improve their psychological well-being through work, enhancing their self-esteem, competence, responsibility, and confidence These skills, in turn, may lead to better academic performance Additional studies by Ravallion and Wodon (2000), Binder and Scrogin (1999), and Patrinos and Psacharopoulos (1997) further support the notion that child labor does not adversely affect schooling, suggesting that the negative relationship between the two factors is minimal.
Ontheotherhands,otherstudiesdocumentthenegativeconsequencesbetweenintensityo f c hildworkandschoolattendance.Further,workingalsohurtchildphysicalaswellasmentaldevelopment followingmanyways.Forinstance,BoozerandSuri(2001)suggestthatonehouro f workingredu ces0.38hoursofschoolattainmentincaseofGhanastudentsinbothNorthernandSouthernregions.
Child labor significantly impacts school enrollment and attendance, as noted by Lavy (1985) and Rosenzweig and Evenson (1977) Amin, Quayes, and Rives (2006) highlight that children in Bangladesh participating in the labor market experience decreased schooling attendance, supporting the substitutes or complements hypothesis in family labor supply decisions Similarly, Khanam and Ross (2008) examine rural Bangladeshi children and utilize logistic regression models to analyze the relationship between child work and educational attainment Their findings indicate that working children exhibit lower school attendance and grade achievement, even when controlling for parental education and household income.
Several studies have explored the impact of child labor on educational outcomes, particularly focusing on how working affects children's academic achievement at an early age Research indicates that the time children spend working directly influences their school participation Heady (2000) analyzed data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS2) to assess the direct and indirect effects of child labor on academic performance in reading and mathematics His findings reveal a significant relationship between working and learning achievements, taking into account various factors such as individual characteristics, attitudes toward education, and school quality He concluded that children engaged in work often struggle to complete homework due to exhaustion and limited time Similar results were reported by Rosati and Rossi (2003) in their studies conducted in Pakistan and Nicaragua.
Somestudiescontinuetoexamine this correlationfollowing differentapproaches.Admass ieandBedi's(2003)explorethatthehighertheworkinghours,thelowertheability ofreadingan dwritingability(RWA)ofchildreninEthiopiarural.Alternatively,Bezerra,Kassouf,andM a r y ( 2 0
This article examines the relationship between child labor and school performance by analyzing standardized test scores in language and mathematics from the 2003 Sistema Nacional de Avaliação da Educação Básica (SAEB) in Brazil The study differentiates the impact of child labor based on whether children work inside or outside the home Utilizing instrumental variables, specifically the average wage for unskilled male labor in the state, the authors apply a two-stage least squares approach to address the endogeneity of child labor They control for various factors related to school, family, and individual characteristics in their analysis The findings indicate that children who do not engage in work tend to outperform their working peers, with notable differences in work conditions influencing school achievement in diverse ways.
Empiricalmodels
Basedo n t h e m o d e l setbyH e a d y (2000),t h i s s t u d y aimst o e x p l o r e b o t h directand indirectimpactofchildlaboroneducationalachievementusingdatafromYoungLivesround4f o r childreni n Vietnami n 2 0 1 3 T h i s empiricalm o d e l i s chosenbecausei t i s efficientt o invest igatedifferentaspectsofeffectofchildwork.Moreover,theavailabledataofYoungLivesalsocontribute tocapturealmostfactorsneededforestimation.
Thechildworkaffectseducationalachievementfollowingtwoways:directandindirect.T h e directeffectresultsi n t h e consequencessuchase x h a u s t i o n , o r tirednessafterchildrenengagei n working.Alternatively,t h e indirecteffectappearsv i a s c h o o l i n g attributes:w o r k i n g m a y obli gechildrentodropordelaytheireducation,orreducetheirtimeonlearningordoinghomework,or losetheirmotivationaboutobtainingacademicknowledge.Thesefactorsleadtot h e decreasei ntheireducationalperformanceatschool.
Inpractice,thedirecteffectisdescribedwhentheanalysisshowsthedirectcorrelationbetwee nw o r k i n g andeducationperformancew h i l e keepingt h e s c h o o l i n g factoro f childrenconsta nt,i n o t h e r say,t h e m o d e l takesschoolingvariablesi n t o account.T h e indirecteffectindicatest heanalyzedresultsofworkoneducationalachievementviaschooling,whichmeansworkingaffectss chooling,andthenlearningperformance.Toobtainthisgoal,threeestimationmodelsareapplied:
The equation Ai = αi + Ii + βWWi + Fi + ei(2) represents the mathematical test scores of individual i, where W denotes the intensity of child labor The model incorporates a comprehensive set of control variables, including individual characteristics such as age, gender, body mass index, number of siblings, innate ability, and time spent on housework (I), along with household characteristics like region, area, household size, per capita consumption, household quality index, and access to services (F) These factors are believed to significantly influence children's working status and educational achievement By excluding schooling factors, the estimated equation allows for the measurement of the total effect—both direct and indirect—of child labor on educational achievement Consequently, the coefficient of the working variable reflects the direct impact of employment on learning performance, as well as its indirect effects through schooling.
Toanalyzethedirecteffectofworking,asmentioned above, theestimationmodelwillbeaddedbyschoolingvariables S of individualsasfollows:
Ai=αi+Ii+βWWi+Fi+Si+ei(3)
The factors influencing schooling include children's educational background, household schooling costs, parental education levels, and their motivation towards education Previous studies often use school enrollment or attendance as measures of schooling, which can create causality issues between work and educational attainment For instance, it is unclear whether children's participation in the labor market leads to school dropouts or if the decision to work and leave school occurs simultaneously Research by Bezerra, Kassouf, and Mary (2009) indicates that increased child labor correlates with decreased school attainment To address this issue, this paper does not use school attainment as an indicator of schooling level Instead, the coefficient of the working variable in equation (3) will reflect its direct impact on educational performance, considering the schooling characteristics of children.
Finally,t o t e s t whethercontrolvariablesands c h o o l i n g factorst r u l y affecte d u c a t i o n a l achievementwithouttakingworkingintoconsiderationfollowingliteratureofeducationalachieve ment,Iexclude thechildworkvariablefromequation(4)asfollow:
Ai=αi+Ii+Fi+Si+ei(3)
ThedependentvariableisthescoresofmathematictestobtainedfromYoungLivesdata(2013)w i l l b e regressedi n threeestimationm o d e l s Thesescoresa r e describedascontinuousvariables.A s a r e s u l t , threeequations( 2 ) ,
(3)and( 4 ) areanalyzedbyu s i n g o r d i n a r y l e a s t squares(OLS)method.
Itisexpectedthatthecorrelationbetweenchildworkandeducationalachievementoperatesnegat ively,inothersay,thehigherleveltheintensityofworking,thelowerthe educationperformanceofchildren.Theestimatedcoefficientofchildworkindicatorisexpectedt o b e negativeβW