Metacognition and instruction
Flavell (1979) emphasizes the significance of metacognition in oral communication, comprehension, and reading skills He suggests that enhancing children's metacognitive knowledge and monitoring abilities through structured training is both achievable and beneficial.
Research on metacognition aims to understand its development and the impact of direct instruction on learning outcomes Studies indicate that enhancing metacognitive skills can significantly improve the meaningfulness of students' learning across various domains (Palinscar & Brown, 1989) Furthermore, Ganz and Ganz (1990) highlight that metacognition enables students to take control of their learning, boosts their perceived efficacy, and reduces the risk of learned helplessness, aligning with essential educational objectives They emphasize that cultivating metacognitive abilities may also influence affective and attitudinal factors, underscoring metacognition's crucial role in educational success.
Metacognitive instruction aims to enhance readers' awareness of their thinking processes while reading Teachers deliver explicit guidance on employing metacognitive skills, which has been shown to significantly improve students' reading comprehension abilities, according to research (Pressley, 2000).
Teaching students reading comprehension in the way concerning metacognition, therefore is a gift that will empower them to support their own learning needs through reading instruction
2.5.1 What are metacognitive reading strategies?
Metacognitive reading strategies are essential for effectively managing cognitive processes during reading These strategies encompass three key components: a) Planning for reading, which sets the stage for comprehension; b) Monitoring comprehension throughout the reading process to ensure understanding; and c) Evaluating reading after completing the language activities to assess effectiveness and retention (Skehan).
Effective reading involves three key components: planning, monitoring comprehension, and evaluation Planning for reading entails setting clear goals, identifying expectations, and previewing the text to guide the reading process Monitoring comprehension involves actively checking understanding, maintaining focus, and addressing confusion as new information is encountered Finally, evaluation of reading includes assessing text difficulty, engaging in self-questioning, and measuring accuracy through task performance These strategies collectively enhance reading effectiveness and comprehension.
Metacognitive reading strategies involve planning, monitoring, and regulating the reading process to enhance comprehension These strategies include checking the outcomes of problem-solving attempts, planning reading moves, assessing the effectiveness of actions taken, and revising and evaluating reading strategies (Brown, 1994) By employing these techniques, readers can effectively manage their reading experience for better understanding and retention.
2.5.2 Effectiveness of awareness of metacognitive reading strategies
In English reading instruction, it is essential for teachers to consider whether students can enhance their reading comprehension through an awareness of metacognitive reading strategies.
Metacognitive reading, as defined by Cohen (1990), involves readers' conscious awareness of their strategic reading processes and the effective use of various reading strategies to enhance text comprehension Students who possess advanced metacognitive reading skills are better equipped to interpret reading tasks according to contextual needs They strategically choose reading methods based on their goals, the demands of the task, and their individual cognitive styles Additionally, these students actively monitor their comprehension, assess the effectiveness of their chosen strategies, and make necessary adjustments to improve their understanding.
Previous research indicates that implementing interventions focused on awareness and metacognitive strategies significantly benefits EFL/ESL learners For instance, a study by Fung et al (2003) explored the impact of teaching metacognitive strategies in both first and foreign languages on EFL students' English reading comprehension, revealing notable improvements in their reading skills.
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Assessment of metacognitive reading strategies
2.5.3.1 Instruments to measure metacognitive reading strategies
Beside verbal protocol analysis, interviews, anecdotal records and observations, and student self-assessment, multiple-choice questionnaires have widely been used to measure learners’ reading processes
The Index of Reading Awareness (IRA), a 22-item questionnaire developed by Paris and Jacobs in 1984, is recommended for classroom teachers to effectively measure elementary school children's metacognitive awareness of reading strategies Additionally, Miholic's 10-item multiple choice inventory, created in 1994, is designed to enhance metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among junior high school students Furthermore, Pereira-Laird and Deane's Reading Strategy Use (RSU) questionnaire, introduced in 1997, evaluates adolescent students' perceptions of their use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies when engaging with both narrative and expository texts.
Recent studies have highlighted the effectiveness of questionnaires in assessing learners' metacognitive awareness during reading processes One notable tool is the Metacognitive Reading Strategy Questionnaire (MRSQ) developed by Taraban et al (2004), which features an analytic-cognitive component focused on reading comprehension and a pragmatic-behavioral component aimed at enhancing academic performance Another significant instrument is the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) created by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002), designed to evaluate the metacognitive awareness of reading processes among native English speakers.
Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002) developed the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) based on the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) to assess ESL students' metacognitive awareness and their perceived use of reading strategies The SORS includes three key revisions to enhance its effectiveness.
The MARSI has been updated to enhance comprehension for non-native English speakers by refining wording, introducing two new strategies, and removing two items It assesses reading strategies across three main categories: Global strategies, Problem-Solving strategies, and Support strategies, which are grounded in the factor analysis and theoretical framework established by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2002).
2.5.3.2 Why SORS to be chosen as a conceptual framework?
This study utilizes Mokhtari and Sheorey’s (2002) definition and classification of reading strategies, specifically employing the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) as a conceptual framework The focus is on assessing the use of metacognitive reading strategies among first-year students at PNTUM, highlighting the importance of understanding their reading strategy application.
- The SORS has been developed and tested by reviewing an extensive body of recent research literature on metacognition and reading comprehension (e.g., Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989; Mokhtari &
- The strategy items used in the SORS cover a wide array of metacognitive strategies involving the reading process; i.e planning for reading, monitoring of comprehension, and evaluation of reading
- The items in the SORS are simple and easy for the students to understand
- Furthermore, the information in the SORS can be helpful to teachers in helping their students learn to become “constructively responsive” and thoughtful readers (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002: 4)
Thus, it is certain to confirm that there are reasonable grounds for employing the SORS in the current study to investigate the students’ use of metacognitive reading strategies
(Survey of Reading Strategies) SORS
Global strategies Problem-Solving Support
(GLOB) strategies (PROB) strategies (SUP)
Effective reading comprehension strategies involve a combination of international and localized techniques designed to support learners These carefully planned mechanisms help readers monitor and manage their understanding of textual information, ultimately enhancing their ability to comprehend the material.
Figure 2.1: A conceptual framework for the study
In this chapter, the understandings of fundamental concepts of literature were presented This provided a broad framework within which the study is underpinned
The article explores various definitions of reading, emphasizing that it is influenced by readers' background knowledge, conceptual abilities, and processing strategies To enhance comprehension of the reading process, it outlines three key approaches: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive, detailing their unique characteristics and instructional implications.
32 considered to the fundamental of the study since it can maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both bottom-up and top-down approaches
The article emphasizes the importance of understanding reading strategies as a component of metacognitive knowledge for readers It highlights the differences in reading strategies employed by high-proficiency and low-proficiency readers, while also discussing the significance of reading instruction and the classification of these strategies Furthermore, it underscores that reading strategies serve as essential tools for enhancing reader engagement and advocates for prioritizing the teaching of these strategies in reading classes.
Various strategies can enhance reading comprehension, particularly through the use of metacognitive strategies, which involve active management of cognitive processes Research has confirmed a positive correlation between metacognitive strategies and English reading comprehension Consequently, the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) was selected as an effective tool to assess students' application of these metacognitive reading strategies.
The studies reviewed in this chapter highlight a significant link between metacognition and reading comprehension Additionally, they emphasize the importance of teaching methods that promote the ongoing application of metacognitive reading strategies within the English reading curriculum.
But it is hard to draw a unified conclusion or generalization from those studies for PNTUM students to enhance their learning of English
The variation in participants, reading materials, tests, and research contexts across different studies has influenced reading comprehension outcomes However, this thesis aligns with a specific theoretical and conceptual framework that underpins the current research Central to this framework is the measurement of metacognitive reading strategies, which is based on Mokhtari & Reichard’s (2002) Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS), guiding the design of the study.
In the next chapter, details of the methodological aspects of research setting, research instruments, and data collection and analysis, will be discussed
A methodology encompasses the techniques and procedures utilized by researchers to create a structured plan for achieving specific research objectives This chapter aims to clarify the actions taken and the processes followed in conducting the current study.
This study aims to investigate and describe the use of metacognitive reading strategies among first-year PNTUM students, highlighting the necessity of such research As noted by Anderson (1990), descriptive methods are essential for data characterization, while Isaac and Michael (1995) emphasize that surveys are effective for gathering detailed factual information about existing phenomena Therefore, the research employs a descriptive method through a survey to fulfill its objectives.
This study explored the metacognitive reading strategies of first-year students at PNTUM through a comprehensive survey Employing both quantitative and qualitative methods, the research gathered data to provide a holistic view of students' reading strategies Quantitative data was collected using a structured questionnaire, which aimed to capture detailed insights into the reading strategies utilized by the students, while qualitative data served as a supplementary resource to enhance the findings.
A reading comprehension test was conducted to categorize students into high-proficiency and low-proficiency groups based on their scores Additionally, qualitative insights from interviews provided further context, which, when combined with quantitative data, informed practical recommendations for strategy-based instruction aimed at enhancing reading comprehension skills.
3.3 The setting of the study
The target population of this study was 475 PNTUM first-year students who started medical English courses in the academic year of 2011-
2012 At the beginning of the academic year, the students were administratively divided into 14 classes by the Department of Foreign Languages, PNTUM, namely Y1A1, YIBI, Y1A2, Y1B2, YIA3,