Planning Process and Methodology
This plan addresses natural hazards such as flooding, erosion, severe weather, and earthquakes Additionally, certain mitigation projects designed for these natural hazards will also help reduce the impacts of other hazards.
The City of Bethel Local
(LHMP) includes information to assist the city government, the
The Tribal government and local residents of Bethel have collaboratively developed a comprehensive disaster preparedness plan aimed at mitigating potential future losses from natural hazards This plan details the various natural threats facing the community, reviews past disaster events, and outlines specific projects designed to enhance resilience and reduce risks By providing essential information, the plan empowers the City to make informed decisions regarding disaster management and community safety.
Bethel, with a population nearing 6,000, is the primary port on the Kuskokwim River within the Yukon Kuskokwim Delta This city acts as a crucial regional hub for 56 nearby Native villages, providing essential services and connectivity despite being land-locked from larger urban centers.
Bethel is located at the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, 40 miles inland from the Bering Sea It lies in the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, 400 air miles west of
Anchorage, situated at approximately 60.79° N latitude and -161.76° W longitude, is part of the Bethel Recording District Covering an area of 43.8 square miles of land and 5.1 square miles of water, Anchorage experiences an average annual precipitation of 16 inches and snowfall of 50 inches Summer temperatures typically range from 42°F to 62°F, while winter temperatures can drop between -2°F and 19°F.
The Bethel City Planner Rick Abboud, oversaw the project Planner Jeff Lee
Harbormaster Heath Martin, Fire Chief George Young provided input
ASCG Incorporated and Eileen R Bechtol of Bechtol Planning & Development were hired to write the plan
Scott Simmons and Ervin Petty of the Alaska Division of Homeland Security &
Emergency Management (DHS&EM) provided technical assistance and reviewed the drafts of this plan
The plan was crafted by integrating existing Bethel plans and studies with external research and information, ensuring that all outside sources are properly credited in parentheses and included in the bibliography.
1 Alaska State Hazard Plan Prepared by and for DHS&EM September 2007
2 Bethel Coastal Management Plan Conceptually Approved Draft City of Bethel,
3 Bethel Coastal Management Plan Enforceable Policies City of Bethel, January
4 Bethel Coastal Management Plan Amendment City of Bethel, BP&D, January
5 Bethel Comprehensive Plan City of Bethel, August 1997
6 Bethel Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy City of Bethel, May
7 Bethel City website http://www.cityofbethel.org/.
8 Bethel Emergency Operations Plan, 2005 City of Bethel, Alaska
9 Bethel Port Development Plan City of Bethel, January 1994
10 Climate change impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptation in Northwest Alaska (No.
06-11) Gregory, R., Failing, L., & Leiserowitz, A (2006) Eugene: Decision
Research http://www.decisionresearch.org/Projects/Climate_Change/
11 FEMA Benefit-Cost Analysis Website: http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/bca.
Getting Started: Building Support For Mitigation Planning (FEMA 386-1)
Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards And Estimating Losses (FEMA 386-2) Developing The Mitigation Plan: Identifying Mitigation Actions And
Implementing Strategies (FEMA 386-3) Bringing the Plan to Life: Implementing the Hazard Mitigation Plan (FEMA 386-4)
Using Benefit-Cost Review in Mitigation Planning (FEMA 386-5)
13 Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for Alaska Parson,
Edward A., et al (1999) A Report of the Alaska Regional Assessment Group for the U.S Global Change Program Prepared for the Center for Global Change and Arctic Research Fairbanks.
American Planning Association: http://www.planning.org
Association of State Floodplain Managers: http://www.floods.org
Developing the Implementation Strategy: www.pro.gov.uk
Federal Emergency Management Agency: http://www.fema.gov/fima/planning.shtm Community Rating System: http://www.fema.gov/nfip/crs.htm
Flood Mitigation Assistance Program: http://www.fema.gov/fima/planfma.shtm Hazard Mitigation Grant Program: http://www.fema.gov/fima/hmgp
Individual Assistance Programs: http://www.fema.gov/rrr/inassist.shtm
Interim Final Rule: http://www.access.gpo.govl
National Flood Insurance Program: http://www.fema.gov/nfip
Public Assistance Program: http://www.fema.gov/rrr/pa
Site visits were conducted on July 19, 2006, October 10, 11, 2006 and February 8, 9,
2007 During these meetings the contractor met with the Bethel City Staff and attended public luncheons The Bethel Planning Commission held a public worksession on February 8, 2007
The public input meetings were promoted through standard city meeting notices, including flyers, and were attended by the Bethel City Council, city staff, and community members A draft of the plan was made accessible for public review at City Hall, the Bethel Public Works Department, and the Bethel Planning Commission.
Other organizations, besides each department in City, who were notified regarding the LHMP were the following:
Village Native Council: Orutsararmuit Native Council
Village Native Corporation: Bethel Native Corporation
Regional Native Corporation: Calista Corporation
Regional Health Corporation: Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation
Economic Development: Lower Kuskokwim Resource Conservation & Development
Following pre-approval from the State of Alaska and FEMA, another round of public input will take place The Planning Commission and City Council will subsequently review and approve the plan.
A copy of the draft Plan is available for public perusal at City Hall, Bethel Public Works Department, and Bethel Planning Commission
The Bethel City Council will oversee the adoption and future updates of the Bethel Local Hazard Mitigation Plan (LHMP), ensuring the promotion of effective public policy related to hazards This Hazards Mitigation Plan will be integrated into other relevant Bethel plans and documents during their scheduled reviews For detailed timelines, please refer to the accompanying table.
Capital Improvement Projects Plan Annually 2007
Bethel Water and Sewer Plan 2005 2010
The City Planner of Bethel will conduct an annual evaluation of the Bethel Local Hazard Mitigation Plan (LHMP) to assess program effectiveness and adapt to changes in land development and other relevant factors This review will involve analyzing mitigation project items for their relevance to evolving city conditions and updates in state or federal policies, ensuring that mitigation efforts remain aligned with current and anticipated needs Additionally, the City Planner will assess the hazard analysis information to determine if updates or modifications are necessary based on new data or changes in circumstances.
The plan will evolve as resources permit, with the potential inclusion of additional hazards, such as technological and manmade risks, in the upcoming five-year update cycle, contingent on available funding.
The plan will be updated every five years or as funded or directed by DHS&EM or FEMA
The City Planner will be responsible for updating and maintaining the plan by adding additional hazards and completing vulnerability assessments for existing hazard chapters.
The following table lists the schedule for completion of these tasks, provided that funds are available to do so:
Hazard Vulnerability Hazard Status Identification Assessment
Public Health Crisis Future Addition 2009 2015
The following methods were used for continued public involvement
City website: http://www.cityofbethel.org
Places where the hazard plan will be kept:
Mitigation aims to lessen the future effects of hazards by minimizing loss of life, property damage, and economic disruption at both local and regional levels Additionally, it seeks to reduce environmental harm and the financial burden on public and private resources during recovery efforts.
Mitigation efforts start with a thorough risk assessment, which evaluates the potential losses from disaster events caused by existing hazards This process involves assessing the vulnerability of infrastructure, buildings, and individuals, while identifying the characteristics and possible consequences of hazards on community assets.
A risk assessment typically consists of three components: hazards identification, vulnerability assessment, and risk analysis.
The initial phase of a risk assessment involves identifying and profiling hazards along with their potential impacts on the jurisdiction, as detailed in Chapter 3: Hazards.
The second step in the vulnerability assessment process involves identifying the specific vulnerabilities within the jurisdiction, focusing on the individuals and properties at risk This assessment encompasses all individuals who enter the area, including employees, commuters, shoppers, tourists, and other visitors.
It is essential to consider populations with special needs, including children, the elderly, and individuals with disabilities, along with critical facilities like health clinics, due to their heightened vulnerability to hazards.
Community Profile
Bethel, a city with a population nearing 6,000, is the primary port on the Kuskokwim River within the Yukon Kuskokwim Delta It acts as a crucial regional hub for 56 nearby Native villages and is geographically isolated from Alaska's urban centers.
Bethel is located at the mouth of the Kuskokwim
River, 40 miles inland from the Bering Sea It lies in the Yukon Delta
Bethel, situated in the Bethel Recording District, covers an area of 43.8 square miles of land and 5.1 square miles of water The region experiences an average annual precipitation of 16 inches and snowfall averaging 50 inches Summer temperatures typically range from 42 to 62 degrees Fahrenheit, while winter temperatures can drop between -2 and 19 degrees Fahrenheit.
Yup’ik Eskimos who called the village “Mumtrekhlogamute”, meaning “Smokehouse People”, named for the nearby fish smokehouse, first established Bethel There were
41 people in Bethel during the 1880 U.S Census At that time, it was an Alaska
The Moravian Church founded a mission in the area in 1884, leading to the establishment of Bethel, which was relocated due to erosion A post office was opened in 1905, and Bethel quickly became a key trading, transportation, and distribution hub, drawing Native communities from nearby villages The city was officially incorporated in 1957, and over the years, federal and state agencies set up regional offices in Bethel, further enhancing its significance in the region.
The Orutsararmuit Native Council, a federally recognized tribe, is situated in a community where 68 percent of the population identifies as Alaska Native or part Native The area has successfully preserved its traditional Yup'ik Eskimo culture and language, thanks to the absence of rapid development that often threatens such heritage Subsistence activities and commercial fishing play vital roles in the local economy, while the sale of alcohol is prohibited, although possession and importation are permitted According to the 2000 U.S Census, there were 1,990 housing units, with 249 vacant, including 61 used seasonally The census reported 2,459 employed residents, an unemployment rate of 8.95 percent, and noted that 33.49 percent of adults were not in the workforce, with a median household income of $57,321 and a per capita income reflecting the community's economic landscape.
$20,267, and 11.18 percent of residents were living below the poverty level (Alaska Department of Commerce, Community, and Economic Development (DCCED) website)
The history of Bethel traces back to the establishment of the permanent Eskimo village of Mumtrekhlogamute, although the exact date of its origin remains unknown In the early 1870s, Reinhold Separe established the first trading post across the river from the village, known as Mumtrekhlogamute Station Additionally, a second trading post operated by the Alaska Commercial Company was set up at the upriver end of the settlement near Brown Slough, with Separe owning the inventory while Edward Lind managed the store.
In 1884, Moravian missionaries sought a location to establish a mission at Mumtrekhlogamute Station The following year, John Kilbuck and William Weinland founded a mission just half a mile west of the trading post By 1886, the first school was opened, and by the turn of the century, the Bethel Mission had become well established.
Reindeer herding and fur farming were pivotal early industries in Bethel, Alaska The introduction of reindeer to the region began in 1892 to boost the local economy, with the Moravian mission receiving 175 reindeer by 1901 By the early 1930s, the reindeer population had grown to around 43,000 along the Kuskokwim River However, this number drastically declined, with only 600 reindeer remaining by 1946 Additionally, during the 1930s, Bethel residents also engaged in fur farming, raising mink and fox.
Remnants of an early fur farm can still be seen near the present site of the Chevron oil storage tanks
Bethel developed into a key economic and trade hub for its region due to early industrial activities and river utilization This status was bolstered by the establishment of transportation infrastructure and significant government-funded capital projects By the 1960s, government and social services had expanded greatly, becoming the primary drivers of Bethel's economy Despite the many economic transformations over the years, the traditional lifestyle and culture of the Yup’ik people continue to be evident in Bethel today.
Bethel experiences a transitional climate zone influenced by storms and weather patterns from the nearby Bering Sea, located 86 miles to the west This region combines elements of both maritime and continental climates, leading to warm mid-summer temperatures averaging 54.7°F in July and extremely cold midwinter temperatures averaging 6.0°F in January, with recorded extremes ranging from 90°F to -52°F The prevailing summer winds come from the SSW, while cool NNE winds dominate from October to March, transitioning to NW winds from April to June Bethel's growing season averages 101 days, with the last frost typically occurring on May 30 and the first frost on September 9.
Some residents are connected to the central piped water and sewer system
Around 75% of households in Bethel rely on trucked water delivery and sewage removal, while some facilities utilize individual wells and septic systems Due to health concerns, the city has prohibited the use of honey buckets Currently, extensions of the piped water systems are being constructed for the City Subdivision and Old Town Recent improvements to the Water Treatment Plant in Bethel Heights have been completed, and additional funding has been requested to connect 105 homes to the piped system Bethel Utilities Corporation supplies electricity to the area.
The community is home to six schools serving 1,328 students, while healthcare is provided by local facilities such as the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Regional Hospital and Bethel Family Health Clinic The hospital is an accredited Acute Care facility, and the clinic serves as a qualified Emergency Care Center Specialized care options include the YKHC Phillips Alcohol Program and YKHC Outpatient Services Classified as a large town and Regional Center within EMS Region 7A of the Yukon/Kuskokwim Region, Bethel has limited access to emergency services via highway, river, floatplane, and airport Emergency assistance is available through 911, local volunteers, and health aides, with additional support from the Bethel Fire Department, Yukon Kuskokwim Health Corporation Ambulance, and Aeromed International Medevac.
Bethel Airport, the third busiest airport in Alaska, serves as the regional transportation hub with various passenger airlines, cargo carriers, and air taxi services It features a 6,398-foot asphalt runway and a 1,850-foot gravel crosswind runway, currently undergoing a $7 million renovation and expansion Nearby, two floatplane bases, Hangar Lake and H Marker Lake, complement the airport's services The Port of Bethel offers a small boat harbor, dry land storage, and transient moorage on the seawall During summer, river travel on the Kuskokwim River is the primary local transportation method, while in winter, the river transforms into a 150-mile ice road connecting surrounding villages A barge service from Bethel supplies goods to these villages, and the city maintains 16 miles of graded dirt roads alongside 22 miles of paved roads managed by the State DOT, with marked winter trails leading to Napakiak and Akiachak.
The latest soil survey in the Bethel area, conducted in 1966, covers a total of 11,465 acres, including 1,020 acres of water, representing approximately one-third of the city's land The predominant soil types in Bethel are silty, acidic, and poorly drained, exhibiting low shrink-swell potential and varying to high frost action Due to these characteristics, most soils in the area are unsuitable for agricultural or urban development.
Permafrost is defined as either permanently frozen material beneath the soil or a permanently frozen soil layer In Bethel, permafrost is prevalent but absent near large water bodies It typically begins 12 to 40 inches below the surface, with an average depth of 400 feet and a maximum depth of 600 feet The temperature of permafrost at depths just below the seasonal variation layer ranges from 28° to 31.5° F, with some areas reaching up to 2° F above freezing.
The geology beneath Bethel is very young, composed almost entirely of flood plain alluvium and silt deposits Northeast of Hangar Lake is an area of reworked silt
Floodplain alluvium consists of recent deposits, including mud, silt, sand, gravel, boulders, and organic materials like wood and peat The silt deposits are rich in permafrost and contain organic "mulch" that transitions to sandier layers with depth, featuring pebbles and wood fragments While the silt likely originates from the river, some deposits may also come from wind and marine sources Additionally, reworked silt forms a transitional plain, slightly elevated above younger floodplain deposits, and is separated from older silt by a significant erosional scarp, indicating the plain's formation through the dissection and erosion of older silt layers.
Community Information Contact Information and Type
Current Population 5,960 (DCCED 2005 Cert Pop.)
Second Class City Rick Abboud City of Bethel P.O 388 Bethel, AK 99559
(907) 543-5301, Fax (907)543-4186 Email: rabboud@cityofbethel.net
Village Native Council Orutsararmuit Native Council
P.O Box 927 Bethel, AK 99559-0927 Phone 907-543-2608 Fax 907-543-2639 E-mail folrun@nativecouncil.org
Village Native Corporation Bethel Native Corporation
P.O Box 719 Bethel, AK 99559 Phone 907-543-2124 Fax 907-543-2897
Regional Native Corporation Calista Corporation
301 Calista Court, Suite A Anchorage, AK 99518-3028 Phone 907-279-5516 Fax 907-272-5060 E-mail calista@calistacorp.com Web http://www.calistacorp.com
Community Information Contact Information and Type
Regional Native Non-Profit Association of Village Council Presidents, Inc.
101 A Main Street, Pouch 219 Bethel, AK 99559
Phone 907-543-7300Fax 907-543-3596E-mail Myron_Naneng@avcp.org
Web http://www.avcp.org
Regional Health Corporation Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corp.
P.O Box 528 Bethel, AK 99559 Phone 907-543-6020 Fax 907-543-6006 E-mail gene_peltola@ykhc.org Web http://www.ykhc.org/
Economic Development Lower Kuskokwim Resource
Coastal Management District Ceủaliulriit Coastal Resource Service Area
P.O Box 219 Bethel, AK 99559 Phone 877-827-8747 E-mail cenaliulriit@starband.net
This section outlines the resources, facilities and infrastructure that, if damaged, could significantly impact public safety, economic conditions, and environmental integrity of Bethel
Critical Facilities: Those facilities and infrastructure necessary for emergency response efforts
Essential Facilities: Those facilities and infrastructure that supplement response efforts.
Church of JC of LDS Tundra Ridge, Bethel 88
Kilbuck Elementary Fourth Ave, Bethel 840
Bethel Primary School Ridgecrest Dr., Bethel 396
Lower Kuskokwi School District Ridgecrest Dr., Bethel 837
Bethel Regional High Ridgecrest Dr., Bethel 1474
Bethel Community College Akiak Dr., Bethel 660
Bethel Assembly of God Sixth Ave., Bethel 120
National Guard Armory Fourth Ave., Bethel 278
US Fish & Wildlife State Highway., Bethel 261
Moravian Church Third Ave., Bethel 115
Moravian Office Bldg Third Ave., Bethel 46
Bethel Covenant Church State Highway, Bethel 53
Source: Bethel Emergency Operation Plan, 2005
Bulk Fuel Storage Tank Farm
Critical Infrastructure: Infrastructure that provides services to Bethel.
Vulnerable Populations: Locations serving population that have special needs or require special consideration.
Cultural and Historical Assets: Those facilities that augment or help define community character, and, if lost, would represent a significant loss for the community.
This section outlines the resources available to Bethel for mitigation and mitigation- related funding and training.
Hazards
Hazard Matrices – City of Bethel
Hazard Matrix – City of Bethel Flood Wildland
Fire Earthquake Volcano Avalanche Tsunami
Weather Landslides Erosion Drought Technological Economic
Hazard is present in jurisdiction but probability unknown Hazard is not present
Unknown if the hazard occurs in the jurisdiction Risk:
Hazard is present with a low probability of occurrence Event has up to
1 in 10 years chance of occurring
Hazard is present with a moderate probability of occurrence Event has up to 1 in 3 year’s chance of occurring
Hazard is present with a high probability of occurrence Event has up to
1 in 1 year chance of occurring
Source: Alaska State All-Hazards Plan, 2007
Table 10 Previous Occurrences and Extent of Hazards
Previous Occurrences and Extent – City of Bethel Flood Wildland
Fire Earthquake Volcano Avalanche Tsunami
Failure Erosion Drought Technological Economic
Extent Z - Zero - Used for historical information An event occurred but may not have caused damage or loss.
L - Limited – Minimal through maximum impact to part of community.
Falls short of the definition for total extent.
T - Total – Impact encompasses the entire community.
Source: Alaska State All-Hazards Plan, 2007
The Hazard Vulnerability Matrix below includes a list of facilities, utilities and businesses and their vulnerability to natural hazards
Essential facilities play a crucial role in ensuring the health and welfare of a community, particularly during the response and recovery phases of a disaster Key infrastructure such as city facilities, health clinics, and schools are vital for effective disaster management and support for affected populations.
Transportation systems such as the airport and roads.
Lifeline utility systems such as potable water and wastewater treatment plant, fuel farms, electrical generation facilities, power grid and communications systems.
Businesses that provides services or commodities
The following table was prepared by the City Planning Department files and NFIP maps.
Table 11 Bethel Hazard Vulnerability Matrix
Facility Flood/Erosion Tundra/Grassland
Facility Flood/Erosion Tundra/Grassland
State of Alaska Fish and Wildlife X X X X
Facility Flood/Erosion Tundra/Grassland
Bethel’s Vulnerability to Identified Hazards:
In summary, most identified hazards are area wide The principal hazards of flood, erosion, wildland fire, severe weather and earthquake could potentially impact any part of Bethel
Flooding events can adversely affect properties that are not directly impacted, leading to road closures, compromised public safety, limited access to essential goods, and isolation For more details, refer to the Bethel Flood Overlay map and the flood section in the following pages.
A severe weather event would create an area-wide impact and could damage structures and potentially isolate Bethel from the rest of the state
An earthquake could cause widespread damage, potentially leading to the complete abandonment of essential infrastructure In Bethel, there are few building damage assessors available to evaluate structural integrity after such an event It is crucial to prioritize the assessment of critical infrastructure, which includes public safety facilities, healthcare centers, shelters, and essential public utilities.
The City of Bethel does not impose property taxes, which means that property values for the facilities and businesses mentioned are unavailable During the Planning Commission meeting on February 8, 2007, several businesses were identified as the most costly to replace in the event of destruction due to a natural hazard.
Floods and Erosion
The following hazard description and characterization were, in part, taken from the
Ceủaliulriit CRSA Coastal Management Plan Amendment, 2007 and Climate change impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptation in Northwest Alaska (No 06-11) Please see the bibliography for the complete citations
Bethel, situated 40 miles upstream from the Bering Sea, faces significant hazards such as river flooding, wave and slough erosion, river ice, and melting permafrost These challenges, particularly permafrost and erosion, impose limitations on resource development, transportation, utility systems, and community growth in the Bethel area.
Climate change is anticipated to exacerbate natural hazards such as flooding in coastal regions, driven by rising sea levels and the retreat of offshore ice packs This increase in flooding poses significant risks to these vulnerable areas.
Flooding in Alaska can result from various factors, including ice jams, snowmelt, and rainfall The state has recorded a maximum flood level of 46 feet In low-lying regions like deltas and flat tundra, even a modest 6-inch increase in water level can lead to extensive flooding.
Coastal flooding is influenced by various factors such as wind conditions, site exposure, and ice conditions Climate change is causing some Alaskan coastal areas to experience delayed freezing, resulting in a later formation of protective shore ice This shift increases the vulnerability of shorelines to fall storms and their accompanying storm surges.
Bethel's community is consistently affected by permafrost, with some areas experiencing seasonal thawing in summer Thermal degradation impacts all soil types, but ice-rich fine-grained soil poses the greatest challenges The melting of permafrost can lead to the formation of lakes or depressions in the landscape.
More than 80% of Alaska is underlain by permafrost, which is acknowledged as a natural hazard in scientific studies Various institutions, such as the U.S Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and the Permafrost Laboratory at the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, have conducted extensive research on this critical issue.
Ice override refers to the movement of ice beyond 33 feet from the high-water mark, while movements under this distance are classified as ice pile-ups These ice override events can be hindered by the presence of ice pile-ups, which in the Canadian Arctic have been known to reach heights of up to 98 feet.
Residents of the Arctic have experienced unexpected ice override events, particularly in regions with steep nearshore slopes and a lack of offshore bars or shoals that could mitigate ice movement These events pose significant risks to offshore drilling platforms, ice and gravel islands, and coastal facilities Notably, the majority of ice override occurrences in the Beaufort Sea have been documented on barrier islands such as Cross, Jeannette, and Narwahl Islands.
Gravel islands within the shorefast ice zone can gather substantial ice formations Initially, during early winter, the forces acting on these ice accumulations are minimal However, as winter progresses, the ice rubble can exert considerably greater loads on the islands.
Melting permafrost: A task force commissioned by the U.S Arctic Research
In 2002, the U.S Arctic Research Commission (USARC) identified three critical roles of permafrost in relation to climate change: it serves as a temperature archive, reflects climatic changes through subsidence, and influences the global carbon cycle The melting of ice-rich permafrost poses a considerable environmental risk in high-latitude areas.
Permafrost serves as a historical record of temperature fluctuations and environmental changes, preserving data on past climatic conditions Thick layers of permafrost can document temperature trends over a century or longer Recent analysis of borehole data from the U.S Geological Survey in northern Alaska indicates that permafrost temperatures on the North Slope have increased by 2 to 4°F over the last hundred years.
The thawing of ice-rich permafrost leads to ground surface settlement, significantly impacting human infrastructure and natural ecosystems In Alaska and similar regions, melting glaciers contribute to increased coastal erosion rates, particularly in areas with permafrost, which are already among the highest globally This coastal erosion may result in sediment input to the Arctic shelf that surpasses sediment from river discharge Additionally, thawing affects the active layer of permafrost, altering its functions and activities, while soil moisture content plays a crucial role in influencing thermal properties, soil heat flow, and supporting vegetation.
Permafrost plays a critical role in exacerbating climate change by releasing greenhouse gases, as significant amounts of carbon are stored in its upper layers As the thawed layer of permafrost increases, it can emit substantial quantities of CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere, intensifying both regional and global warming Additionally, in parts of the Alaskan Arctic, numerous sites contain buried contaminants from past decades When permafrost thaws, the active layer becomes permeable, enabling these contaminants to migrate laterally and affect surrounding environments.
The thawing of permafrost significantly alters hydrology, leading to severe surface subsidence known as thermokarst, which can exceed 16 feet in areas with high ice content This melting can cause flooding or draining in affected regions, impacting land use and surface conditions.
Shoreline erosion is significantly influenced by storm systems along coastlines, which create powerful winds that generate large waves and currents These storm surges can elevate water levels by up to 23 feet, heightening the susceptibility of shorelines and floodplains to fluctuations in tidal ranges in rivers and bays Additionally, these changes impact sediment and nutrient transport, which are crucial for driving beach processes.
Severe Weather
Weather is influenced by four key elements: the sun, the atmosphere, moisture, and the Earth's structure Specific interactions among these factors can lead to extreme weather conditions, which may escalate into disasters.
Alaska is prone to severe weather disasters, including blinding blizzards caused by high winds and loose snow, with wind chill temperatures plummeting to 75°F below zero The region experiences extreme cold, ranging from -40°F to -60°F, accompanied by ice fog that can persist for a week Heavy snowfall is frequent in the interior and along the southern coast, while rapid thaws can lead to significant flooding.
Winter storms originate as mid-latitude depressions or cyclonic weather systems High winds, heavy snow, and cold temperatures usually accompany them To develop, they require:
Cold air - Subfreezing temperatures (below 32ºF, 0ºC) in the clouds and/or near the ground to make snow and/or ice.
Moisture - The air must contain moisture in order to form clouds and precipitation.
Lift - A mechanism to raise the moist air to form the clouds and cause precipitation Lift may be provided by any or all of the following:
The flow of air up a mountainside.
Fronts, where warm air collides with cold air and rises over the dome of cold air.
Upper-level low pressure troughs.
Heavy snow, defined as over 12 inches within 24 hours, can paralyze a community by halting transportation and closing airports and major roads, which disrupts the supply chain and emergency services This accumulation poses risks such as roof collapses, downed trees, and damaged power lines, while also threatening light aircraft and small boats A rapid thaw following heavy snowfall can lead to significant flooding, and the financial burden of snow removal, repairs, and business losses can severely impact local economies Additionally, injuries and fatalities often arise from vehicle accidents, overexertion while shoveling, and hypothermia due to prolonged exposure to cold conditions.
What is considered an excessively cold temperature varies according to the normal climate of a region In areas unaccustomed to winter weather, near freezing temperatures are considered
"extreme cold” In Alaska, extreme cold usually involves temperatures below –40 degrees
Fahrenheit Excessive cold may accompany winter storms, be left in their wake, or can occur without storm activity.
Extreme cold in interior Alaska can disrupt transportation for days or even weeks, grounding aircraft due to severe cold and ice fog This situation hampers access and restricts the flow of essential supplies to northern villages.
Extreme cold can severely disrupt community infrastructure by causing fuel to congeal in storage tanks and supply lines, halting electricity generation This lack of electricity renders heaters inoperative, leading to the freezing or rupturing of water and sewer pipes Additionally, when extreme cold coincides with minimal or absent snow cover, the frost depth in the ground can rise, further jeopardizing buried pipes.
Extreme cold poses significant risks to human health, particularly through prolonged exposure, which can lead to serious conditions such as frostbite and hypothermia Infants and the elderly are especially vulnerable to these dangers During severe cold spells, the likelihood of hypothermia rises sharply, and the use of supplemental heating devices also increases the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning.
An ice storm refers to significant ice accumulation caused by freezing rain, which can lead to severe winter weather impacts, including automobile accidents, power outages, and personal injuries This phenomenon occurs when supercooled rain freezes upon contact with cold surfaces Typically, freezing rain occurs in a narrow band within a larger winter storm that also produces substantial snowfall and sleet in surrounding areas.
Freezing rain occurs when falling snow melts into rain as it passes through a warm layer of air, only to encounter a thin layer of cold air near the ground This causes the rain to cool below freezing without freezing solid, resulting in supercooled droplets When these supercooled droplets make contact with cold surfaces like the ground, power lines, or tree branches, they freeze instantly, creating hazardous conditions.
Period of Record General Climate Summary - Temperature
Max Min High Date Low Date Highest
F F F dd/yyyy or yyyymmdd F dd/yyyy or yyyymmdd F - F - #
January 12.4 -0.5 48 17/1963 -48 28/1989 25.7 1985 -12.9 1989 30.4 16.1 February 15.1 1.3 46 13/1970 -39 02/1954 26.1 1989 -13.2 1984 27.7 13.4 March 21.5 5.4 48 31/1954 -42 01/1956 29.4 1981 -3.1 1966 30.6 12.4 April 33.0 17.2 63 30/2004 -31 05/1956 34.9 1993 8.3 1985 28.0 4.4 May 49.4 32.5 80 31/1993 4 03/1965 48.1 1981 31.0 1964 15.4 0.0 June 60.0 43.0 86 19/1959 28 01/1960 57.8 1957 45.1 1978 0.6 0.0 July 62.9 48.0 86 11/1951 31 17/1959 61.1 2004 50.5 1959 0.0 0.0 August 59.6 46.7 87 09/2003 28 26/1984 59.4 2004 49.0 1969 0.1 0.0 September 51.9 38.4 72 10/1979 18 27/1957 50.2 1995 37.6 1992 5.8 0.0 October 35.7 24.3 65 02/1954 -6 30/2001 36.3 2002 23.4 2001 25.5 0.4 November 23.7 11.6 51 06/2002 -24 30/1990 27.4 1970 2.8 1963 28.5 6.6 December 13.8 0.8 45 21/1963 -41 28/1957 25.3 1985 -10.7 1999 30.5 15.7
For monthly and annual means, thresholds, and sums:
Months with 5 or more missing days are not considered
Years with 1 or more missing months are not considered
Seasons are climatological not calendar seasons
Source: Western Regional Climate Center, wrcc@dri.edu
As indicated by the table above, Bethel is at most danger from extreme cold The following severe weather event for the entire state was declared in 1989
Omega Block Disaster, January 28, 1989 & FEMA declared (DR-00826) on May 10,
In 1989, a statewide disaster was declared by the Governor in response to a record-breaking cold spell that saw temperatures plummet to -85 degrees This declaration enabled a range of emergency actions, including repairs to critical water, sewer, and electrical systems, the resupply of essential fuels and food, and support from the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (DOT&PF) to ensure access to isolated communities.
In 1990, following the severe Omega Block cold spell of January and February 1989, a Presidential Declaration of Major Disaster was issued, allowing federal funds to be allocated for cold weather damage mitigation in future incidents Additionally, the Governor's disaster declaration enabled the state to secure the matching funds necessary to access and utilize these federal resources effectively.
Please see Hazard Vulnerability Assessment Matrix and description at the beginning of this chapter
Severe Weather Goals and Projects
Goal 1: Mitigate the effects of extreme weather by instituting programs that provide early warning and preparation
Goal 2: Educate people about the dangers of extreme weather and how to prepare
Goal 3: Develop practical measures to warn in the event of a severe weather event.
Research and consider instituting the National Weather Service program of “Storm
Storm Ready is a comprehensive community preparedness initiative aimed at enhancing local readiness for severe weather events, including tornadoes and tsunamis By adopting a grassroots strategy, the program empowers communities to create effective emergency plans and encourages a proactive mindset towards hazardous weather management It offers emergency managers straightforward guidelines to elevate their operations, ensuring communities are better equipped to handle various weather-related challenges.
To be officially Storm Ready, a community must:
1 Establish a 24-hour warning point and emergency operations center.
2 Have more than one way to receive severe weather forecasts and warnings and to alert the public.
3 Create a system that monitors local weather conditions.
4 Promote the importance of public readiness through community seminars.
5 Develop a formal hazardous weather plan, which includes training severe weather spotters and holding emergency exercises.
6 Demonstrate a capability to disseminate warnings.
Specific Storm Ready guidelines, examples, and applications also may be found on the Internet at: www.nws.noaa.gov/stormready
Other Severe Weather Mitigation Projects
Conduct special awareness activities, such as Winter Weather Awareness Week, Flood Awareness Week, etc.
Expand public awareness about National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio for continuous weather broadcasts and warning tone alert capability.
Encourage weather resistant building construction materials and practices.
Install sirens to warn people of a severe weather event or disaster event.
Install automated weather sensors Automated weather sensors are the chief method by which the National Weather Service detects the occurrence of incoming severe weather.
Tundra/Grassland Fire
Wildland fires are a significant issue in Alaska, with the state experiencing between 600 and 800 fires annually, primarily from March to October These fires can lead to extensive damage, highlighting the need for awareness and prevention efforts.
Fire is recognized as a critical feature of the natural history of many ecosystems It is essential to maintain the biodiversity and long-term ecological health of the land In
Alaska's natural fire regime features a return interval of 50 to 200 years, influenced by vegetation type, topography, and location Wildland fire plays a crucial role as an ecological process and change agent, which is now integrated into fire management planning To promote ecosystem sustainability, Alaska employs a comprehensive range of fire management activities that consider ecological, economic, and social impacts The management response to fires is guided by the need to protect firefighter and public safety, as well as natural and cultural resources Ensuring the safety and welfare of firefighters and the public remains the top priority in all fire management efforts.
Fires can be divided into the following categories:
Structure fires – originate in and burn a building, shelter or other structure.
Prescribed fires – ignited under predetermined conditions to meet specific objectives, to mitigate risks to people and their communities, and/or to restore and maintain healthy, diverse ecological systems.
Wildland fire – any non-structure fire, other than prescribed fire, that occurs in the wildland.
Wildland Fire Use – a wildland fire functioning in its natural ecological role and fulfilling land management objectives.
Wildland-Urban Interface Fires occur in zones where human development intersects with undeveloped wildland or vegetation, creating a heightened risk for complex and dangerous fire conditions These fires pose significant threats to both public safety and the safety of firefighters.
Wildland fire behavior is significantly influenced by fuel, weather, and topography, leading to erratic and extreme conditions such as firewhirls and firestorms that pose serious risks to firefighters The type of fuel present determines the energy released, spread rate, and containment efforts required Weather is a highly variable factor, with high temperatures and low humidity promoting fire activity, while cooler temperatures and higher humidity can suppress it Wind plays a crucial role in affecting both the speed and direction of a fire, while topography can direct air movement, causing fires to spread more rapidly, especially in canyons and uphill terrains.
The risk of wildland fires in Alaska is rising due to the infestation of spruce bark beetles These beetles lay their eggs beneath the bark, and when the larvae hatch, they consume the tree's phloem, essential for nutrient transport Significant loss of phloem can lead to the death of the tree, which subsequently dries out and becomes extremely flammable.
Previous Occurrences of Tundra/Grassland Fires
The City of Bethel Fire Department reports that summer sees around five to eight tundra and grassland fires, primarily due to dry conditions that make the tundra highly flammable While the city has not suffered direct damage from these fires in the past thirty years, smoke from the blazes has frequently disrupted aviation during the summer months.
In June 1979, Alaska experienced an unusually dry spell, leading to more than 200 wildfires in its forests and grasslands During this time, the Alaska Department of Natural Resources (DNR) utilized funds from a special account to carry out fire suppression efforts.
In 1978, the Legislature allocated $750,000 for fire suppression, but when these funds ran out, the Governor declared a Disaster Emergency to facilitate the transfer of funds from the Disaster Relief Fund to the Department of Natural Resources' Fire Suppression Fund This action exemplified public assistance through the Department of Emergency Services to a state agency Consequently, due to the depletion of the Fire Suppression Fund and the Disaster Emergency Proclamation, the Alaska Legislature increased the fund to $5 million in 1980-81 and further to $9 million in 1982, although no assistance was provided to individuals and families during this incident.
In July 1990, the wildland fire season in Alaska reached unprecedented levels, overwhelming the Department of Natural Resources' fire suppression capabilities In response, the Governor declared a disaster to mobilize the Alaska National Guard for support in managing the state's wildland fires Additionally, the Federal Emergency Management Agency approved federal funding to cover up to 70% of fire-related expenses that surpassed the typical annual fire management budget.
Local Tundra/Grassland Hazard Identification
The City of Bethel has recorded five to eight tundra/grassland fires a year
The following map from the Alaska State Hazard Plan depicts Bethel as being in a low probability area of the state, due to the low risk factor for Bethel.
Figure 2 Alaska Hazard Plan - Fire Risk Map
Bethel is situated within a designated full protection area, aimed at safeguarding uninhabited private properties, valuable natural resources, and significant cultural and historical sites from wildland fires The primary goal of fire suppression in this region is to manage and contain fires while minimizing the affected acreage Fires in full protection zones are prioritized for resource allocation, second only to those threatening critical protection areas.
Tundra/Grassland Fire Hazard Vulnerability
Please see Hazard Vulnerability Assessment Matrix and description at the beginning of this chapter
Tundra/Grassland Fire Hazard Mitigation
Wildland Fire Goals and Projects
Goal 1: Establish building regulations to mitigate against fire damage
Goal 2: Conduct outreach activities to encourage the use of Fire Wise development techniques.
Goal 3: Encourage the evaluation of emergency plans with respect to wildland fire assessment.
Goal 4: Acquire information on the danger of wildland fires and how best to prepare
Mitigation Projects for Tundra/Grassland Fires
Continue to support the local fire department with adequate firefighting equipment and training
Promote Fire Wise building design, siting, and materials for construction.
The Alaska Fire Wise Program aims to raise awareness about the risks associated with wildland fires and offers strategies for mitigation This initiative is part of a national effort managed by the Alaska Wildfire Coordinating Group (AWCG).
Establish construction fire regulation and requirements.
Encourage development of building codes and requirements.
Enhance public awareness of potential risk to life and personal property
Encourage mitigation measures in the immediate vicinity of their property.
Earthquake
Alaska is one of the most seismically active regions globally, accounting for approximately 11 percent of the world's earthquakes Notably, three of the ten largest earthquakes recorded since 1900 have taken place in this region On average, Alaska experiences a magnitude 7 or greater earthquake roughly once a year, while magnitude 8 earthquakes occur approximately every 14 years.
Large earthquakes typically result from the sudden release of accumulated stress between moving crustal plates on the Earth's surface, with some occurring along faults within these plates The associated dangers include ground shaking, surface faulting, ground failures, snow avalanches, seiches, and tsunamis The extent of damage varies based on the quake's magnitude, local geology, distance from the epicenter, and the design and construction of structures A key objective of earthquake hazard reduction programs is to save lives by economically rehabilitating existing buildings and ensuring the construction of safe new structures.
Ground shaking during an earthquake is primarily caused by three types of seismic waves: Primary waves, which are the first to be felt as a sharp jolt; Shear waves, which are slower and move side-to-side, posing a greater risk to structures due to their horizontal motion; and Surface waves, the slowest but often the most energy-carrying in major quakes The extent of damage to buildings is influenced by how the unique characteristics of these waves interact with the buildings’ height, shape, and materials.
Earthquakes are assessed based on their magnitude and intensity, where magnitude indicates the energy released and intensity reflects the impact on people and structures in a specific location For small to moderate earthquakes, the Richter scale is the standard used to report magnitude.
Large earthquakes, particularly those frequently experienced in Alaska, are measured using the moment-magnitude scale, as the traditional Richter scale fails to accurately reflect the energy released during such significant seismic events.
Intensity is usually reported using the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale This scale has
Earthquakes can be categorized into 12 levels, from undetectable tremors to complete devastation, with varying intensity recorded at different locations due to factors like proximity to the epicenter and local construction methods Soil conditions significantly influence the earthquake's impact, as areas with loose fill are likely to experience more damage compared to those with stable, shallow bedrock Additionally, surface faulting refers to the differential movement along fault lines, which can be classified into three main types.
Strike-slip faults involve horizontal movement on either side of the fault, while normal faults are characterized by one side dropping down in relation to the other In contrast, thrust (or reverse) faults occur when one side moves up and over the fault compared to the opposite side.
Earthquake-induced ground failure frequently results from liquefaction, a phenomenon where saturated soil, typically composed of sand and coarse silt, loses its strength during seismic shaking and behaves like a viscous fluid.
Liquefaction leads to three main types of ground failures: lateral spreads, flow failures, and loss of bearing strength During the 1964 earthquake, more than 200 bridges suffered destruction or damage from lateral spreads, while flow failures significantly impacted port facilities in Seward, Valdez, and Bethel.
Ground failures during earthquakes often stem from the loss of strength in saturated clay soils, as evidenced by the significant landslides that caused extensive damage in Anchorage in 1964 Additionally, other earthquake-related ground failures can manifest as slumps and debris slides, particularly on steep slopes.
According to data sourced from the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, and the Alaska Earthquake Information System (AEIS), the Bethel area is classified as having a low probability of experiencing an earthquake However, it is important to note that all regions of Alaska are susceptible to seismic activity, which means that Bethel could still face earthquake risks or experience secondary effects from seismic events occurring in nearby areas.
Figure 3 AEIS Earthquake Active Faults
Figure 4 AEIS Historic Regional Seismicity
The State of Alaska State Hazard Plan designates Bethel as in a Zone 1 of potential earthquake danger (on a scale of 0 being the lowest)
Please see Hazard Vulnerability Assessment Matrix and description at the beginning of this chapter
Previous Occurrences of Earthquake Hazards
There have been no reported incidences of earthquakes in Bethel
Goal 1: Obtain funding to protect existing critical infrastructure from earthquake damage.
If funding is available, perform an engineering assessment of the earthquake vulnerability of each identified critical infrastructure owned by the City of Bethel.
Identify buildings and facilities that must be able to remain operable during and following an earthquake event.
Contract a structural engineering firm to assess the identified buildings and facilities to determine their structural integrity and strategy to improve their earthquake resistance.
Description of Hazards Not Present in Bethel
Bethel is situated on a flat floodplain with a gentle elevation of 10 to 12 feet, ensuring safety from natural disasters The city is free from the risks of avalanches, landslides, and volcanic activity due to the absence of mountains and steep slopes.
There is no danger of tsunamis and seiches since Bethel is located forty miles from the Bering Sea.
Mitigation Strategy
This section of the plan details Bethel's comprehensive strategy aimed at minimizing its susceptibility to identified hazards, including flooding, erosion, severe weather, and earthquakes The current focus is on these primary concerns, but the mitigation strategy will be continuously refined and updated as new hazard information emerges.
The projects listed on following Benefit and Costs Listing Table, were prioritized using a listing of benefits and costs review method as described in the FEMA How-To-Guide
Benefit-Cost Review in Mitigation Planning (FEMA 386-5)
Due to financial and other constraints, implementing all mitigation actions can be challenging Consequently, priority will be given to the most cost-effective measures for funding, ensuring efficient resource use while making a practical initial effort to mitigate risks.
The City of Bethel prioritized mitigation projects by emphasizing benefit-cost analysis, particularly focusing on life-safety and critical facilities This strategic approach ensures that projects with favorable benefit-cost ratios are prioritized, reflecting the significant dollar value associated with safeguarding lives and essential infrastructure.
1 Extent to which benefits are maximized when compared to the costs of the projects, the Benefit Cost Ratio must be 1.0 or greater.
2 Extent the project reduces risk to life-safety.
3 Project protects critical facilities or critical city functionality.
Other criteria that was used to developing the benefits – costs listing depicted on the Cost Benefit Review Listing table:
1 Vulnerability before and after Mitigation
Number of people affected by the hazard, areawide, or specific properties.
Areas affected (acreage) by the hazard
Number of properties affected by the hazard
Loss of life (number of people)
Risk reduction (immediate or medium time frame)
Other community goals or objectives achieved
Long time frame to implement
This method prioritizes projects based on a benefit-cost review, emphasizing the maximization of benefits over costs High-priority projects are those that offer immediate benefits exceeding their costs Medium-priority projects have costs that slightly exceed immediate benefits but can commence within five years Low-priority projects, which are costly with no known benefits, are deemed long-term actions and are not feasible within the current planning cycle.
The Bethel Planning Commission is set to conduct additional public meetings regarding the LHMP Update, which will require final approval from the Bethel City Council following pre-approval from DHS&EM.
Following the approval of the LHMP Update, it is essential to conduct a Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) for projects during the funding cycle related to disaster mitigation funds from DHS&EM and FEMA.
The Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) process evaluates the future benefits of a mitigation project in relation to its costs This analysis produces a Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), calculated by dividing the total net benefits of the project by its total costs The BCR serves as a numerical indicator of the project's cost-effectiveness, helping stakeholders make informed decisions.
Composite BCRs of 1.0 or greater have more benefits than costs, and are therefore cost-effective.
This section is adapted from a FEMA document that outlines the process for conducting a Benefit-Cost Analysis For comprehensive guidelines, benefit-cost analysis documents, and technical assistance, visit the FEMA website at http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/bca.
FEMA has streamlined the preparation of Benefit-Cost Analyses (BCAs) by offering user-friendly software, comprehensive written resources, and training Their suite of BCA software covers various significant natural hazards, including earthquakes, wildland and urban interface fires, riverine and coastal flooding (A-Zone and V-Zone), as well as hurricane winds and tornadoes.
When technical data is insufficient for BCA software, the Frequency Damage Method can be utilized for smaller-scale or localized hazards This method, including the Riverine Limited Data module, applies to various natural hazards by establishing a correlation between the frequency of events and the resulting damage and losses It is effective for assessing risks related to coastal storms, windstorms, freezing, mudslides, severe ice storms, snow, tsunamis, and volcanic hazards.
To ensure standardized calculations and facilitate the evaluation process, applicants and sub-applicants are required to utilize FEMA-approved methodologies and software to demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of their projects.
Alternative BCA software may also be used, but only if the FEMA Regional Office and FEMA Headquarters approve the software
Benefit-Cost Review vs Benefit-Cost Analysis (FEMA 386-5) states in part:
The Benefit-Cost Review for mitigation planning is distinct from the Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) used for specific projects, as it focuses on evaluating the overall cost-effectiveness of mitigation actions BCA serves to identify the potential positive impacts of these actions and weigh them against their costs To aid in this assessment, FEMA has developed a variety of BCA software, including modules tailored to specific hazards This analysis helps determine the technical cost-effectiveness of mitigation projects, based on the principle that the benefits arise from a reduction in future damages.
DMA 2000 does not require hazard mitigation plans to include BCA’s for specific projects, but does require that a BCR be conducted in prioritizing projects
To assist Applicants and Sub-applicants, FEMA has prepared the FEMA Mitigation BCA
Toolkit CD This CD includes all of the FEMA BCA software, technical manuals, BC training courses, Data-Documentation Templates, and other supporting documentation and guidance
The Mitigation BCA Toolkit CD is available free from FEMA Regional Offices or via the
BC Helpline (at bchelpline@dhs.gov or toll free number at (866) 222-3580.
The BC Helpline is also available to provide BCA software, technical manuals, and other BCA reference materials as well as to provide technical support for BCA.
For technical support, Applicants or Sub-Applicants can reach out to their State Mitigation Office, the FEMA Regional Office, or the BC Helpline Both FEMA and the BC Helpline offer guidance on how to prepare a Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA).
& Severity) X THE HAZARD EXPOSED TO = RISK Dollars ($$)
Probability of Value & Severity of the
Damaging Hazard Vulnerability of Hazard Threat to
Events Property Exposed to the Built the Hazard Environment
Benefit Cost Review Listing Table
Table 15 Benefit Cost Review Listing
* Priorities: High = Clearly a life/safety project, or benefits clearly exceed the cost or can be implemented, 0 – 1 year
Medium = More study required to designate as a life/safety project, or benefits may exceed the cost, or can be implemented in 1 – 5 years.
Low = More study required to designate as a life/safety project, or not known if benefits exceed the costs, or long-term project, implementation will not occur for over 5 years
** PDMG Pre-Disaster Mitigation Grant
*** HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
****FMA Flood Mitigation Assistance (Program)
Mitigation Projects Benefits (pros) Costs (cons) High
FLD-1 Structure Elevation and/or Relocation
Life/Safety project Benefit to government facilities and private properties Potential PDMG**, HMGP***, FMA****
FEMA, PDMG**, HMGP*** and State DCRA funding available.
DCRA funding may be available Could be done yearly
Not clear if there would be community interest or participation Medium
FLD-4 Install upgraded streamflow and rainfall measuring gauges
Life/Safety project Benefit to government facilities and private properties Potential PDMG**, HMGP***, FMA****
FLD-5 Apply for grants/funds to implement riverbank protection methods.
Life/Safety project Benefit to government facilities and private properties Potential PDMG**, HMGP***, FMA**** Dollar cost unknown, >$50k
CRS rating to lower flood insurance rates.
High capability by city to do on an annual basis Will reduce NFIP insurance for entire community
Mitigation Projects Benefits (pros) Costs (cons) High
FLD-7 Obtain flood insurance for all City structures, and continue compliance with NFIP
High capability by city to do on an annual basis.
Public benefit to have public buildings insured through NFIP Inexpensive, approx.
Property Damage Reduction during flooding
Benefit to public and private properties Potential PDMG
Ongoing project Expensive $8.5 million High
Life/Safety issue Funding potential from PDMG or HMGP
Ongoing Project Expensive $10 million High
FLD-10 Continued Repair of Existing Seawall
Life/Safety issue Funding potential from PDMG or HMGP
Annual responsibility Relatively inexpensive, $70k High
Life/Safety issue Property damage reduction.
Benefit to entire community Potential funding from USCOE, PDMG
Important to replace eroding infrastructure
Specific Cost unknown, approximately 25 tons would be needed at
$105/ton Design and construction method needs to be determined Medium
Mitigation Projects Benefits (pros) Costs (cons) High Severe Weather (SW)
SW-1 Research and consider instituting the
National Weather Service program of “Storm Ready”.
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
State assistance available Could be implemented annually Staff time High
SW-2 Conduct special awareness activities, such as Winter Weather
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
Could be an annual event Staff time High
SW-3 Expand public awareness about NOAA
Weather Radio for continuous weather broadcasts and warning tone alert capability
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
Could be an annual event Staff time High
SW-4 Encourage weather resistant building construction materials and practices.
Potential for increased staff time.
Political and public support not determined
SW-5 Install a siren to warn people of a severe weather event
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
State assistance available Could be implemented immediately Less than $5,000 High
SW-6 Installation of automated weather sensors
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community
Expensive Need to secure funding
Mitigation Projects Benefits (pros) Costs (cons) High Tundra/Wildland Fire (WF)
WF-1 Continue to support the local fire department with adequate firefighting equipment and training
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community State assistance available Annual project
Staff time to research grants High
Fire Wise building design, siting, and materials for construction.
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community, Annual project
Staff time to research grants High
WF-3: Continue to enforce development of building codes and requirements for new construction.
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
State assistance available Could be implemented annually Staff time High
WF-4: Enhance public awareness of potential risk to life and personal property Encourage mitigation measures in the immediate vicinity of their property.
Life/Safety issue Risk reduction Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
State assistance available Could be implemented annually Staff time High
E-1 If funding is available, perform an engineering assessment of the earthquake vulnerability of each identified critical infrastructure owned by the City of Bethel.
Life/Safety issue/Risk reduction
Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
Could be an annual event Staff time High
E-2 Identify buildings and facilities that must be able to remain operable during and following an earthquake event.
Life/Safety issue/Risk reduction
Benefit to entire community Inexpensive
Could be an annual event Staff time High
Mitigation Projects Benefits (pros) Costs (cons) High
E-3 Contract a structural engineering firm to assess the identified bldgs and facilities.
Benefit to entire community Risk reduction
Feasibility and need analysis needed.
Table 16 Mitigation Strategy Plan Table
* Priorities: High = Clearly a life/safety project, or benefits clearly exceed the cost or can be implemented, 0 – 1 year
Medium = More study required to designate as a life/safety project, or benefits may exceed the cost, or can be implemented in 1 – 5 years.
Low = More study required to designate as a life/safety project, or not known if benefits exceed the costs, or long-term project, implementation will not occur for over 5 years
** PDMG Pre-Disaster Mitigation Grant
*** HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
****FMA Flood Mitigation Assistance (Program)
City DCRA, DHS&EM FEMA
Project FLD 3 Public Education City
DCRA Staff Time DCRA Medium
Project FLD 4 Install upgraded streamflow and rainfall measuring gauges
Project FLD 5 Apply for grants/funds to implement riverbank protection methods
Project FLD 6 Pursue obtaining a CRS ranking to lower flood insurance rates.
DCRA Staff Time City High
Project FLD 7 Obtain flood insurance for all City structures, and continue compliance with
USCOE FEMA City, DHS&EM
USCOE FEMA City, DHS&EM
USCOE FEMA City/DHS&EM
USCOE FEMA City/DHS&EM
Project SW 1: Research and consider instituting the National
City Staff Time DCRA High
Project SW 2: Conduct special awareness activities, such as
Week, Flood Awareness Week, etc.
Project SW 3: Expand public awareness about NOAA
Weather Radio for continuous weather broadcasts and warning tone alert capability.
City Staff Time NOAA High
Project SW 4: Encourage weather resistant building construction materials and practices.
City Staff Time City Medium
Project SW 5: Install a siren to warn people of a severe weather or disaster event
Project SW 6: Installation of automated weather sensors
Automated weather sensors are the chief method by which the
National Weather Service detects the occurrence of incoming severe weather.
Project FIRE 1 Acquire additional firefighting equipment and training for personnel
City DHS&EM >$20,000 State Grant High
Wise building design, siting, and materials for construction.
Forestry NA State Grants High
Project FIRE 3 Establish additional fire regulation and requirements.
City Staff Time State Grants High
Project FIRE 4 Purchase additional fire fighting equipment and vehicles, such as a Fire
City State Div of Forestry
Project EQ 1: Encourage development of earthquake resistance building codes and requirements.
City Staff Time State Grants High
Project EQ 2: Enhance public awareness of potential risk to life and personal property from earthquakes Encourage mitigation measures in the immediate vicinity of their property.
Staff Time State Grants High
Project EQ 3: If funding is available, perform an engineering assessment of the earthquake vulnerability of each identified critical infrastructure owned by the City of Bethel.
DHS&EM Staff Time PDMG Medium
Project EQ 4: Identify buildings and facilities that must be able to remain operable during and following an earthquake event.
Project EQ 5: Contract a structural engineering firm to assess the identified buildings and facilities to determine their structural integrity and strategy to improve their earthquake resistance.
Type of zone found on all Flood Hazard Boundary Maps (FHBMs), Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs), and Flood Boundary and Floodway Maps (FBFMs).
Local governments can acquire lands in high hazard areas through conservation easements, purchase of development rights, or outright purchase of property.
Any feature, whether manmade or natural, that holds value encompasses a wide range of elements This includes individuals, structures, and essential infrastructure such as bridges, roads, and water systems Additionally, it covers vital resources like electricity and communication networks, as well as environmental, cultural, and recreational assets, including parks, dunes, wetlands, and significant landmarks.
In the National Flood Insurance Program, the term "base flood" refers to the minimum flood size used by communities to develop their floodplain management regulations This level represents a flood that has a one-percent chance of occurring in any given year, commonly referred to as the 100-year flood elevation or one-percent chance flood.