Anglican-and-Pentecostal-Prayer-in-Ethiopia-First-Draft

Rasbury Wes Rasbury Ethiopian Ecumenical Prayer: Anglican and Pentecostal Dr Foster Issues in Global Christianity BIBH 640.W1 April 11, 2014 Rasbury Christianity has seen many different shifts and changes over time From the first century until now, the global center of Christianity has shifted time and time again, moving from the Middle East, up and across much of Europe, and finally back down south, deeper and deeper into the African continent.1 Thus, the expressions and forms of Christianity have changed as well, as this faith has continued to move and permeate different cultures around the world Yet the differences in the way Christianity has looked is not only due to the spread and movement of this faith, but it also due to the many denominations that have sprung from within Christianity It is in each of these denominations that different expressions of Christianity arise; some churches emphasize this over that, while others say these words during worship rather than those words Yet, could there be a stark difference between the language and practices of Christians who, although are located in two different denominations, find themselves within the same geographical region- even more, in the same country? The following is an exploration of prayer among both Anglican and Pentecostal Christians from within East Africa, more specifically in the country of Ethiopia However, before going into the differences in prayer between these two different denominations, a common understanding must be provided A brief overview of prayer will be given first, in order to bring the reader up to speed on prayer, as well as to show the framework of prayer that this paper operates from Then, a short history will be given first of the Anglican tradition, then of the Pentecostal tradition The rise and spread of each is important in understanding where these two traditions stand now Included in this brief historical synopsis of each of these traditions will be an examination of the major theological tenets of each tradition, as well as, and more pointedly for the purposes of this paper, how each views or understands prayer in a very broad and general sense Next, a short historical account of Ethiopia will be Todd M Johnson, “Christianity in Global Context: Trends and Statistics,” Pew Forum Rasbury provided for the reader in order that he or she might better understand the current religious situation within this country Finally, the paper will move to intended and identified purpose of comparing the prayers of Christians in Ethiopian Anglican churches and of Christians in Ethiopian Pentecostal churches Prayer: Prayer is a major tenet of Christianity in all forms and facets, as well as in other religions outside of the Christian circle, (Judaism, Islam, Spiritualism, paganism, Hinduism, etc.) Prayer is one of the oldest practices of religion in general, dating back to examples from the time of Jesus and his ministry, and even before the common era.2 Thus, Christianity cannot claim prayer as a solely Christian construct or invention In fact, The Dictionary of Comparative Religion describes prayer as “a universal religious phenomenon, because it stems from the natural human disposition to give verbal expression to thought and emotion.”3 Charles W Nienkirchen points to this as well, saying, “The impulse to pray is universal It is not dependent on religious affiliation,” and goes on to call prayer an “irrepressible yearning.”4 Karl Barth also points to this yearning and desire when he says, “When we pray, our human condition is unveiled to us, and we know then that we are in this distress and also in that hope…prayer is thus our human response when we understand our distress and know that help will come.”5 Or, put in another light, “prayer…is the very soul and essence of religion.”6 Thus, prayer could be likened to the heartbeat or the blood of religion There are many examples of prayer throughout the Old Testament, (the Psalms, the prayers of the kings, etc.); Examples of prayer are also seen outside of the Christian circle, and even outside of the circle of the Abrahamic faiths, (Greek and Roman religious practices) S.G.F Brandon, ed., “Prayer,” The Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1970), 507-509 Charles W Nienkirchen, “Prayer,” The Dictionary of Christian Spirituality (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), 166 John R Tyson, ed., Invitation to Christian Spirituality (Oxford: University Press, 1999), 388 William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Collier Books, 1961), 361 Rasbury However universal prayer may be, though, prayer has become a pillar in the Christian faith across all of its denominations As Charles Hodge asserts, “A prayerless Christian and pulseless man are alike impossible.”7 We see the importance of prayer in Christianity through the multiple examples seen in both the Old and New Testaments We see this through the different illustrations of prayer and discussions on prayer from the founding mothers and fathers of Christianity.8 And, we also see this through through, (to borrow Brandon’s language), humanity’s need to communicate with the supernatural and the divine, prayer has found a strong presence in the Christian faith Prayer within the confines of Christianity is often defined as “communication with God.”9 These exact words are given in The New Dictionary of Theology as a description and discussion of the theology of prayer.10 The ability to communicate with God rests on the understanding and belief that the Christian God is a relational god, and desires a personal relationship with those who would choose to follow him.11 Thus, prayer is most commonly understood in Christianity as the open line of communication between the Christian adherent and the Christian God Prayer is an expression and product of the “dynamic, transformative, dialogical relationship between humans and the triune God…”12 Prayer is the way in which Charles Hodge, “Conference Paper” (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1879), 293 Origen, On Prayer, Life as Prayer, How to Pray; John Cassian, On Prayer, Continuous Prayer; St Francis, St Francis’ Prayer Before the Crucifix, An Untitled Prayer (Francis); Thomas Aquinas, On Prayer; Desiderius Erasmus, The Weapons of Christian Warfare; Thomas Cranmer, Prayer for the Whole State of Christ’s Church, Prayer of General Confession, Prayer of Humble Access; Teresa of Avila, Mental Prayer, The Prayer of Union; George Herbert, Prayer; Jeanne (Madame) Guyon, The Prayer of Simplicity; Hannah More, Prayer; Walter Rauschenbusch, the Social Meaning of the Lord’s Prayer; Karl Barth, The Problem of Prayer, Prayer as a Gift of God, Prayer as a Human Act, A Pastoral Prayer; Mother Teresa, Prayers All but the first of these are examples given from flipping through the table of contents looking for the word ‘prayer’ or things related to prayer in Tyson, vii-xv For more on this definition of prayer, see Donald G Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer (Colorado Springs: Helmers & Howard, 1988), 50-66.; Also see, Wayne R Spears, The Theology of Prayer (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), 7-9 10 D J Tidball, “Prayer, Theology of,” The New Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988), 526527 11 Tidball, 526 12 Nienkirchen, 166 Rasbury Christians both ask God for blessings and cry out to God in pain and sorrow; it is where Christians can openly express each and every possible human emotion imaginable to God.13 As Donald G Bloesch puts it: Christian prayer is born out of the realization that human beings in and of themselves are incapable of saving themselves from the forces of darkness within and about them In genuine prayer, we come to God with empty hands trusting solely in his mercy…we not bring God offerings that can win his favor, but we bring before him the petition of an earnest heart.14 Prayer is a necessity for human beings at large, but it has become particularly important and vital in the life and practice of Christianity Prayer looks differently and is expressed differently, however, depending on many different factors In fact, in her overview of Christian spiritual disciplines, Adele Calhoun lists and describes fourteen different types of prayer.15 Situations might call for certain prayers, such as prayers for sick friends or family members Or, one might pray earnestly for financial blessings if there was an unexpected breakdown of the family car, and the person, with a fixed income, is faced with this new expense on top of the usual bills Or, one may turn to God in prayer for praise, thanking God for the new promotion they received, or for a safe flight between destinations Prayer has more of a function than simply to connect the created with the creator, however In relation to prayer being a universal practice throughout many different religions rather than simply confined to Christianity, prayer functions at a higher level than simply to ask God for blessings Although the Christian understanding of prayer is that it is a conversation with God and that prayer is the place where one can connect with God, there is also a cathartic level of prayer To quote James again, “as regards prayers for the sick, if any medical fact can be 13 Nienkirchen, 166 Bloesch, 19 15 Adele A Calhoun, Spiritual Disciplines Handbook (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2005), 203-255 14 Rasbury considered to stand firm, it is that in certain environments prayer may contribute to recovery, and should be encouraged as a therapeutic measure.”16 Miller and Yamamori agree with James, saying that prayer offers one the opportunity “to voice feelings and concerns that otherwise would not find an audience, either human or divine,” as well as to empower the individual by giving them “new strength and energy to deal with the problems of life.”17 This cathartic function or role of prayer is precisely why prayer is practiced across religions It is a human desire to pray, and the practice of praying serves to fill a cathartic function that one cannot find elsewhere Thus, Christianity and prayer are very much intertwined and enmeshed in one another Although it cannot and should not be thought of as a Christian construct, prayer has become a central focus and practice of Christianity Not only are the adherents to Christianity humans, and therefore have this desire- this “irrepressible yearning” to pray, but they also find this cathartic role or function filled by the practice of prayer Christians are also given, through prayer, the chance and opportunity to communicate with their God- prayer is a place where the creator and the created intersect As a result of this connection and intersection, prayer is the place where Christians are able to ask God for blessings, to pray for others, and to listen to God Even more, Christians are given the example of prayer throughout the Bible, both in the Old as well as in the New Testament And finally, at the very basic and very frank level, Christians are called to pray, and to pray often, time and time again throughout the Bible Thus, prayer is now central to Christianity, and has, (since the third century), been a major area of study and thought within the Christian circle.18 16 James, 361 Donald E Miller and Tetsunao Yamamori, Global Pentecostalism: The New Face of Christian Social Engagement (Berkley: University of California, 2007), 146 18 Prayer is seen throughout the Bible, but Christian writers and theologians have also spent much time and energy thinking about and discussing prayer Nienkirchen says, “Systematic discussions of prayer first appeared in the rd century when three prayer treatises were authored by three North African church fathers within fifty years of each other Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian each composed full-length prayer treatises that included a commentary on the Lord’s Prayer, extolled as the perfect condensation of the gospel.” Nienkirchen, 169 17 Rasbury There are a multitude of different types of prayer, as well as a multitude of different reasons for prayer For the purposes of this paper, however, prayer will be broken-down into a framework of five categories, as given by The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality.19 These five different categories of prayer are adoration, confession, intercession, petition, and thanksgiving The examples of possible, everyday scenarios given above touch on the last three of these five, intercession, petition, and thanksgiving In an effort to reach a common ground, though, a brief definition and overview will be given of each of these five categories Adoration is the veneration of God because, as K E Kirk puts it, God is “the limit which surpasses everything that is admirable in our finite experience.”20 Prayers of confession are characterized by the admittance of committed sins by the adherent, and help Christians to gain forgiveness of those sins as well as to find relief from the burden of guilt.21 Intercessory prayers are “with, for and on behalf of another person, group of people or even the world, which [are] undertaken by an individual or group.”22 Prayers of petition are, put very simply, the prayers of asking for something or another.23 Lastly, prayers of thanksgiving are characterized by their thankful approach to God, praising and thanking God for what God has done or for who God is, (although some would argue that all prayer displays this thankful attitude toward God).24 Prayer is major part of Christianity, and can be expressed in a variety of ways The five categories listed above help to narrow down the understanding of prayer to be discussed here However, much more could be said on prayer, specifically in relation to ways of prayer, (whether rehearsed or extemporaneous; whether in a group, in corporate worship, or in a private setting; 19 K E Kirk, et al., eds., “Prayer,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality (Philadelphia: Wakefield, 1983), 307-313 20 John Macquarrie, “Prayer: Adoration,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 307 21 Gordon S Wakefield, “Prayer: Confession,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 308 22 Michael Hollings, “Prayer: Intercession,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 309 23 George Appleton, “Prayer: Petition,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 311 24 A Michael Ramsey, “Prayer: Thanksgiving,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 312 Rasbury whether one is talking to or even at God, or one is listening to try to hear God’s voice), on specific words and language used during prayer, and even on posture taken during prayer However, most of these differences in prayer will be touched on later in this paper With this categorized understanding of prayer, this paper will now move forward toward comparing prayers of Anglican and Pentecostal Christians in Ethiopia, but will first examine the rise, spread, and current status of both Anglicanism and Pentecostalism The Anglican Tradition: Anglicanism was officially begun in the early to middle sixteenth century, amidst the chaos ensued by the creation of The Church of England, and its ‘separation’ from the Catholic church When the king of England, King Henry VIII, desired an annulment from the Roman papal office of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused to give such an annulment to him, he created the Church of England Laws were passed that officially and legally set this church beyond the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church and the Roman see However, since this split was from the Catholic tradition and since this was the tradition that Henry VIII and the rest of England was familiar with, there was not much change to be seen initially In fact, as Spinks says, “The result was that by 1536 the English church was an independent Catholic church.”25 He goes on to say that although this new church aimed to abolish “popular devotional practices…until the death of Henry VIII, the Latin Catholic rites remained the norm of public worship in the English church.”26 It was not until the late into the seventeenth century, (1689), under the reign of Elizabeth I, that the Toleration Act was passed, 25 Bryan D Spinks, “Anglicans and Dissenters” in The Oxford History of Christian Worship (Oxford: University, 2006), 492 26 Spinks, 494 Rasbury and the national church of England became a fully separate and established church in its own right.27 It is through the effort to form a unified church of the state, one in which was a reaction against and separate from the Roman Catholic Church, that the Church of England emerged Granted, at this same time, there were other Christian “greats” reacting against the Catholic Church, (such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli).28 However, the creation of the Church of England was a separate and distinct action from the Protestant Reformation, arising mostly out of the will of the king of England.29 Though, however negatively painted in other books and accounts, Alan Jacobs paints this breaking away from the Catholic Church as well as from the Protestants in a positive light Jacobs argues that the primary reason for the creation of this church, (though it “had both theological and political reasons”), was for political purposes 30 Yes, King Henry VIII wished to divorce Catherine of Aragon and to instead marry Anne Boylen However, Henry thought the power of the pope was too far-reaching in general, and insisted, (as did others), “on English rule of the English church…”31 Thus, it was not quite possibly not simply because of the desire for an annulment, but also due, (at least in part), to the common atmosphere and thinking at the time that the Catholic Church was too powerful and too farreaching, as well as possibly to a sense of English nationalism Regardless of the exact and precise reason or reasons why, the Church of England was established in this time, (though, as has already been mentioned, was not officially completely separate and established until over a century later) With the initial establishment of this church, however, came a need for a high priest or overseeing minister; it needed its own archbishop 27 Spinks, 492 Nathan D Mitchell, “Reforms, Protestant and Catholic” in The Oxford History of Christian Worship, 317-324 29 Spinks, “Anglicans and Dissenters,” 492 30 Alan Jacobs, The Book of Common Prayer: A Biography (Princeton: University Press, 2013), 31 Jacobs, 28 Rasbury Thus, on March 30, 1533, Thomas Cranmer was appointed and installed as Archbishop of Canterbury Apparently upon installation, he swore an oath saying that …he would not allow his loyalty to the church to trump his loyalty to the king, and pledging that he would nothing to interfere with “reformation of the Christian religion, the government of the English church, or the prerogative of the Crown of the well-being of the commonwealth.”32 Thus, although there are many different hints and elements of an enmeshment of church and state, there is also a theme of rethinking and “reforming” Christianity from the Catholic way of doing things Cranmer immediately set to work on this goal, translating and publishing the litany in English in 1544, the common language, instead of Latin like it had been given in the Catholic church to this time.33 Archbishop Cranmer then published many other reforms to the liturgy including the Order of the Communion, and, (most importantly for the purposes of this paper), the Book of Common Prayer.34 This latter publication was originally very simply a rendering of “the old services…into English,” but officially replaced all of the Latin Catholic rites on Pentecost Sunday, June 9, 1549.35 However, Cranmer issued a newer, revised Book of Common Prayer in 1552 on All Saint’s Day This updated edition “moved public worship in an unmistakably Protestant direction,” although these updates and reforms did not last long, due to Mary Tudor, (a staunch Catholic), coming to the throne.36 Thus, after Mary’s reign, and Elizabeth’s gain of the country, the prayer book went under yet another revision in 1559, which seemed to be the most decisive and final revision of the Book of Common Prayer, even to this day.37 32 Jacobs, Spinks, “Anglicans and Dissenters,” 494 34 Spinks, 494 35 Spinks, 494-495 36 Spinks, 497.; Jacobs, 57 37 Jacobs, 58-59 33 Rasbury It is the idea of a common book of different prayers that began the idea of this paper Especially in contrast with extemporaneous and spontaneous prayer, having a set book in which the whole of the congregation can use to pray seems odd In fact, these two would seem to be at polar and opposite ends of the spectrum from each other: one is a well thought-out, revised, written out book of prayers for an individual or a group of people to follow along with and read from; the other is prayer spoken impromptu and ‘on the spot.’ Granted, it is not the case nor should one assume that the prayers listed in the Common Book of Prayer are the extent of prayers that Anglican adherents pray As Charles Hefling is very quick to point out, “The Prayer Book is not a prayer book, in the sense of a collection of separate prayers It is more like a playbook, the ‘script’ actors use for performing a play.”38 While there are pros and cons to both approaches in praying, and while this paper aims to explore just that, it will now shift to a discussion over the start and spread of the Pentecostal movement The Pentecostal Tradition: When turning from the Anglican tradition to the Pentecostal tradition, clarity needs to be brought in order to gain a common ground and place for understanding in order to move forward A look into the history of this fairly recent tradition and denomination brings one much insight into the tradition itself, as well as from where and how it has grown Not only this, but an understanding of the history of the tradition helps one to better understand the future of the movement Thus, this paper will now consider the Pentecostal movement- its beginnings, its spread, and its current state The Pentecostal tradition has its origins and roots in Topeka, Kansas in Charles F Parham’s Bethel Bible School It is suggested as being a fairly young and recent denomination or 38 Charles Hefling, “Introduction: Anglicans and Common Prayer” in The Oxford Guide to The Book of Common Prayer: A Worldwide Survey, edited by Charles Hefling and Cynthia Shattuck (Oxford: University Press, 2006), Rasbury 1 movement, (as opposed to Anglicanism or Catholicism), starting just one hundred and thirteen years ago on January 1, 1901.39 Through one of Parham’s lessons on the connection between speaking in tongues and baptism in the Holy Spirit, the students and he are recorded as gaining the gift of glossolalia, (or tongue speaking) This message and movement was then picked up by William J Seymour, (who had sat outside the classroom and had heard and witnessed these things), to Los Angeles, California Here, Seymour preached in his Holiness style, proclaiming the message about this phenomenon, and calling for revival It was in this context that the more well-known and more familiar connection with Pentecostalism is seen- Azusa Street Azusa Street is the common connection point with the start and spread of the Pentecostal tradition Although some would argue for the earlier beginning with Parham and the Bethel Bible School, it was at the Azusa Street mission that much of the Pentecostal theology emerged Burgess and McGee describe it by saying that this church or mission represented an anomaly on the American religious scene Blacks, whites, and Hispanics worshiped together Men and women shared leadership responsibilities The barrier between clergy and laity vanished, since participants believed that the endowment of spiritual power for minister was intended for all to receive The gifts of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12), understood by most denominations as having ceased at the end of the first century, had been restored.40 The excitement that this revival brought spread throughout the land, so much so that “Before long, Pentecostal revivals could be found in Canada, England, Scandinavia, Germany, India, China, Africa, and South America.”41 Thus, Pentecostalism brought with it an unprecedented 39 Stanley M Burgess and Gary B McGee, “The Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements: Introduction” in The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Regency Reference, 1988), 1-3 ; Although this is the date most often attributed to the rise of the Pentecostal Movement, recent scholarship has found Pentecostal expressions of faith before this date from around the world, suggesting that perhaps the similar expressions of Pentecostal faith found in the Bible never actually stopped after the first century For more on this view, see Stanley M Burgess, “Introduction” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), xv 40 Burgess and McGee, 41 Burgess and McGee, Rasbury energy and excitement, and soon spread throughout each of the continents In fact, this growth was so rapid that it by the middle of the twentieth century, the Pentecostal tradition was growing faster than almost every other Christian tradition.42 Eventually, this growth led to the country of Ethiopia in the 1950’s, as a result of the mission work of Finnish and Swedish missionaries 43 This initial movement gained speed quickly, and continued to grow and spread, as did a separate “indigenous Pentecostal movement” around the same time.44 Spirituality, then, within the Pentecostal tradition should also be discussed As defined by The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, spirituality is “the pietistic habits of ordinary individuals.”45 This dictionary then goes on to list “five implicit values” which are seen throughout and govern Pentecostal spirituality These five governing principles are 1) individual experience, 2) orality, 3) spontaneity, 4) otherworldliness, and 5) a commitment to biblical authority.46 The author, Splitter, goes on to discuss the practices of prayer and worship within Pentecostalism, and connects these five different values or principles with them, identifying how each is illuminated by the practices of this tradition He says, The style of prayer and praise is instructive Quite usual is collective oral prayer, all praying at once, mostly vernacular or mostly glossolalic or some mix of the two This pattern expresses the personal experience of each Such collective group prayer is usually cued by a leader, but it can be emerge spontaneously- in which cases glossolalia often predominates…Fasting often accompanies prayer, but it is rarely mandated for congregations The raising of hands in joint or individual prayer reflects literal response to biblical precedents (Exod 17:11-12) and commands (1 Tim 2:8).47 42 Burgess and McGee, Jörg Haustein, “Embodying the Spirit(s): Pentecostal Demonology and Deliverance Discourse in Ethiopia,” Ethnos 76.4 (Dec 2011), 536 44 Jörg Haustein, “Historical Epistemology and Pentecostal Origins: History and Historiography in Ethiopian Pentecostalism,” Pneuma 35 (2013), 350 45 R P Splitter, “Spirituality, Pentecostal and Charismatic” in The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Regency Reference, 1988), 804-805 46 Splitter, 804-805 47 Splitter, 806 43 Rasbury He goes on, “Proxy prayer…appears increasingly in contemporary Pentecostalism as a learned technique from charismatics” in which “an interested third party sits on a chair in the midst of the gathered Christians The laying on of hands might be done by all present in groups…The idea is that prayer here is offered on behalf of an identified person not present and, quite possibly not interested in the prayers offered.”48 Splitter moves on to talk about the Pentecostal use of touch, especially by some of the televangelists within the tradition, as well as “dancing in the Spirit” as a form of prayer, “falling under the power” or “being ‘slain by the Spirit,’ the idea and practice of “a word of knowledge” given to any member, “anointed prayer cloths,” snake handling, speaking in tongues, “holy laughter,” divine healings, “leg-lengthing,” exorcisms, and finally, visions.49 Granted, it is not every Pentecostal member nor every Pentecostal church that practices each and every one of these different things Regardless, it is clear that the Pentecostal tradition practices a variety of different worship actions and disciplines, which can be seen as fitting into and illuminating the five different overarching values identified by Splitter With this understanding and overview of the different practices of those within the Pentecostal tradition, one can better understand the spirituality of someone who identifies as a Pentecostal It is clear that there are a variety of different practices practiced by the whole of the tradition However, not only adherents to the Pentecostal tradition perform and practice many different types of worship and have many different expressions of their spirituality, but they also, (very clearly), practice many different forms and styles of prayer As seen above, prayer within the Pentecostal tradition can be done in the form of dancing, proxy prayer, speaking in tongues, praying for healing, praying for freedom from demons for yourself or others, and gaining insight or wisdom or words of knowledge directly from God or the Spirit Each of these types or 48 Splitter, 806 Splitter, 807-808 ; Some would argue against the actuality of healing and prayers for healing For more on this, see Candy Gunther Brown, Testing Prayer: Science and Healing (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012) 49 Rasbury expressions of prayer can be categorized into the already given classifications of prayer above: adoration, confession, intercession, petition, and thanksgiving Prayers of exorcism fit both into the categories of intercession and petition; speaking in tongues could be understood as prayers of adoration, of confession (Rom 8:26), or of thanksgiving; prayer in the form of dancing falls into the category of either adoration or thanksgiving Ethiopia: With the historical contexts of both the Anglican and the Pentecostal traditions established, this paper will now move into a brief history of the country of Ethiopia The region in which this country belongs to is considered ‘East Africa’ or ‘Eastern Africa,’ and houses Ethiopia, as well as Burundi, Comoros, Djibuti, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.50 Christianity is very prevalent and growing within the countries of this region- so much so that “Christians will constitute a majority of the population in 14 of Eastern Africa’s 20 countries in 2020 (and a near majority in a fifteenth, Eritrea), rising from 11 in 1970.”51 It is projected to house nearly half, (45%), of the population of Christian on the whole of the African continent within only six years.52 The Anglican tradition has a somewhat surprising influence within this region, with projections that Eastern Africa will be home to over half, (53%), of the population of total Anglicans in Africa by the year 2020.53 Pentecostalism, however, is not as prevalent within this region, with five of the fourteen countries having total populations of Pentecostal adherents at 0%, (Comoros, Djibuti, Eritrea, Mayotte, and Somalia), and four more countries having percentages of their total populations as those adhering to the 50 Christianity in its Global Context (Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, 2013), 24 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 52 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 53 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 51 Rasbury Pentecostal tradition at percentages less than 10, (Madagascar, Malawi, Uganda, and Zimbabwe).54 Eastern Africa, then, is very clearly diverse and even different from one country to the next With this knowledge in the background, this paper will now focus in on one of those countries in particular- Ethiopia Ethiopia claims roots in Christianity from as far back as the fourth century.55 Apparently, Coptic Christianity was prevalent within this country, and the influence of Ethiopian culture upon this form of Christianity produced the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, “which was the state church until the revolution.”56 One finds reference even in the Bible of Christianity making its way back to Ethiopia, (at least, assuming the eunuch returned to Ethiopia after his encounter with Paul to reassume his duties as treasurer).57 Thus, Christianity would not seem to be a new development by any means to the Ethiopian people or country In fact, the Christian population within Ethiopia has taken off in new and surprising ways, so much so that, according to a fairly recent article by PewResearch, a large number of Christians has emigrated, (and continues to emigrate), from Ethiopia to the United States.58 Yet, it is not just Christianity that occupies some or part of this country In fact, Ethiopia has a very diverse population, which has added to the tensions.59 Since the revolutions within the country in 1991, “there has been considerable freedom of religious expression.” 60 However, although Christianity has found and maintained a presence within this country, so have other 54 Burgess, “Part I: Global Survey” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 47-282 55 D J Garrand, “Ethiopia” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 85 ; This claim is also supported by Paul Marshall, Lela Gilbert, and Nina Shea in Persecuted: The Global Assault on Christians (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2013), 271 56 Garrand, 85 57 Acts 8:26-40 58 Pew Forum, “Faith on the Move: The Religious Affiliation of International Migrants,” (March 8, 2012) 59 Joachim Persoon, “New Perspectives on Ethiopian and African Christianity: Communalities and Contrasts in Twentieth Century Religious Experience,” Exchange 34.4 (Nov 2005), 311 60 Garrand, 85 Rasbury religions, including Islam, (especially along Ethiopia’s Eastern border with Somalia, as well as in the North and in the Southeast).61 Due to this struggle for religious between Christians and Muslims, as well as between Christians and other Christians, combined with the “considerable freedom of religious expression,” there have also been “vigorous antievangelical activities.” 62 Thus the religious situation within Ethiopia, although the country has known Christianity for some time, is far from ideal This tension between different religions, and even between different sects within the Christian circle is very apparent Persecuted describes Ethiopia as being “at a religious crossroads, where ancient Orthodox Christians and Muslims have coexisted, albeit often tensely, for some thirteen hundred years.”63 However, in combination with these two different, coexisting religions vying for power and adherents, there have been two other recent developments to add to the situation within this country In recent years, Evangelical sects of Christianity have gained popularity and power, as well as “pockets of highly intolerant and sometimes violent Wahhabi or Salafi Muslims, who threaten the nation at large.” 64 The authors go on to add that the population of Ethiopia alone, (which is around ninety million), is nearly two-thirds Christian, (mostly Orthodox, “with a newer population of Evangelicals and Pentecostals”) 65 The religious situation within Ethiopia, though it has had and sometimes still does have times of harmony and peace, has also become more and more complicated and tense Through the tensions between Christians and Muslims, as well as between Christians and other Christians; through the somewhat recent emergence of new sects of Christianity such as Evangelical or Pentecostal traditions; and lastly, through the seemingly recent increase in reactions against and persecution 61 Garrand, 85 Garrand, 85 63 Marshall et al., 270 64 Marshall et al., 270 65 Marshall et al., 270-271 62 Rasbury toward Christianity by pockets of Muslim extremist groups, the religious climate in this country seems slightly unstable Anglican vs Pentecostal Prayer It is with the knowledge of first of all, prayer in general, second, the Anglican tradition, third, the Pentecostal tradition, and lastly, the country of Ethiopia itself that the focus of this paper can finally turn toward the intended topic- that of the difference between Anglican and Pentecostal prayer within the country of Ethiopia Although admittedly lengthy, setting up this paper in this certain way seemed necessary Understanding the five different categories of prayer itself helped to give a framework with which to work out of Then, giving very brief historical settings for the two different traditions to be looked at provides one with the understanding of where these two traditions have come from, and where they are now Also, although it will be explored further in this section, the brief overviews of the two traditions helped to connect and illuminate categories of prayer from the five given above within each tradition Finally, an understanding of the setting in which this paper is discussing the difference in prayers helps to give the reader cultural context It has already been stated, or at least hinted at, above that the Pentecostal tradition emphasizes and practices more spontaneous prayer than the Anglican tradition does One reason for this is the culture of Ethiopia itself This country, and largely Africa as a whole, is based more in orality than in literacy In fact, Walter Hollenweger supports this claim, saying that the spirituality of Christians in places considered Third World is not “based on books and printed liturgies or on the personal study of the Bible, but on the experience of the presence of God in worship and everyday life,” and that these experiences are expressed in many different ways, Rasbury including “songs, proverbs, stories, parables and dances.”66 A reason for the emphasis on the spoken rather than the written is the nature of the country’s economic status Granted, this is a bold claim to make However, the fact remains that the continent is mostly comprised of countries listed as “Third World.” Brinkman asserts this when he says, To a significant degree this is a matter of, on the one hand, the Christians with the book and, on the other hand, the Christians without the book, that is to say: of a contrast between literate and illiterate, between those who can afford to buy a book and also have had the advantage of an education, so they can read it, and those who have never yet been to school and therefore have never had a book in their hands.67 While the countries are becoming more and more developed, this issue of economic disadvantage among many of the continent’s inhabitants still remains Thus, this understanding would give some background and reasoning for the claim that the Pentecostal tradition is rising at the rate that it is among Third World countries In fact, within Ethiopia, as Allan Anderson claims, “since the fall of the Mengistu regime in 1991, Ethiopia has among the fastest-growing Evangelical churches in the world.”68 This rise in these churches and denominations is due, at least in part to the nature of the tradition, and to the culture it is permeating Another reason for an apparent preference toward the Pentecostal tradition, still housed under the larger category of relating to the culture of Ethiopia as well as related to the preference of oral tradition, is the religious culture already present in Africa As Donatus Pius Ukpong puts it, “Africans’ responses to God are often communicated in the form of spontaneous personal prayer.”69 The same author, although in a different work, adds, “the primal spirituality as articulated in modern Pentecostalism synchronizes easily with the African approach to the 66 Walter J Hollenweger, “The Ecumenical Significance of Oral Christianity,” Ecumenical Review 41.2 (Apr 1989), 259 67 Martien E Brinkman, Progress in Unity?: Fifty Years of Theology Within the World Council of Churches: 19451995: A Study Guide (Louvain: Peeters Press, 1995), 162 68 Allan Heaton Anderson, “Book Reviews: The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience” Pneuma 35 (2013), 256 69 Donatus Pius Ukpong, “Liturgical Prayer of the Faithful: A Theological Adaptation from a Pentecostal Perspective,” Pneuma 35 (2013), 396 Rasbury Supreme Being and is in harmony with the African idea of transcendental efficacy.”70 Thus, the nature of the culture of Ethiopia, one in which the spiritual world is emphasized far more than in the Western world, adds to what seems to be a preference toward Pentecostalism over Anglicanism The nature of Pentecostal spirituality is geared more toward emphasis on the spiritual, due to its recognition of spiritual gifts, its emphasis on the experience of the individual, its emphasis on orality, and its emphasis on spontaneity.71 In fact, according to Ukpong, a recent study found that the pentecostal style or form of worship is gaining appeal among Africans, specifically Nigerians, and that those in traditions with more of a set liturgy, (in this survey and research, namely Catholics), are wanting prayer styles that are more fulfilling.72 Although this research represents a focus group from Western Africa, not Eastern Africa, and adherents to the Catholic faith, not Anglican, this would still seem applicable to Anglicans in Ethiopia It seems that the largest factor of a certain tradition’s success in a specific region, then, would be its ability to connect to and with the culture that it is permeating It is apparent that Pentecostalism is able to this well, or at least has been able to so far in Ethiopia However, there has been some effort made by the Anglican tradition as well In fact, the Anglican churches in countries around Ethiopia have even, within the past twenty years, rewritten the Book of Common Prayer in order to connect with the culture in a new and different way.73 In another book, Christopher Webber offers another version of the prayer book from yet another country 70 Donatus Pius Ukpong, Nigerian Pentecostalism: Case, Diagnosis and Prescription (Uyo, Nigeria: Fruities, 2008), 35-36 71 Splitter, 804-805 72 Donatus Pius Ukpong, The Phenomenology of Pentecostalism in Nigeria: A Theological and Ecclesiological Reflection (Rome: Litografia Liberet, 2006), 61-78 73 Ian Tarrant, Anglican Swahili Prayer Books: Tanzania (1995) and Congo (1998) (Norwich: Canterbury Press Norwich, 2006), ; I was not able to find any resources specifically from Anglican churches in Ethiopia Tanzania, although not quite Ethiopia, is located in the same region- Eastern Africa Rasbury located within this same region- Kenya.74 Especially in this work, one sees the specific language incorporated into the different liturgical prayers written into their prayer book Sentences such as “We pray for those affected by Aids,” and “When we seek a higher yield through science alone/ we poison the earth and generations to come” are found throughout this prayer book, highlighting the enculturation of these African peoples into Anglicanism.75 Thus, it is through connecting with a culture, using their language, connecting to their metaphors, living the way they do, that missions are effective, which is why both the Pentecostal and Anglican traditions have obviously done just this Although some would argue against the idea that the Book of Common Prayer could be a prayer book for all nations and all peoples, the Anglican tradition has definitely spread beyond its origins in England, and still continues to have a fairly strong hold within Africa, even Ethiopia.76 Conclusion It is apparent that both the Pentecostal and the Anglican traditions are present within the African context, within the Eastern African context, and even within the Ethiopian context Both of these traditions have made efforts and strides to connect with the culture that they are in, in order to remain a presence within that culture One of the most evident ways they have done this is through their prayer styles and language Anglicanism has been able to adapt to the specific language of this culture and has incorporated its language into its liturgical prayer book Pentecostalism has connected both with the emphasis on the spiritual world and the spontaneity of the culture in general Thus, it would seem that both of these are of absolute necessity- a liturgical worship and prayer book that the whole church could worship from, and spontaneity 74 Christopher Webber, Give Us Grace: An Anthology of Anglican Prayers (Harrisburg: Morehouse Publishing, 2004), 484-489 75 Webber, 485-486 76 R E Hood, “Can the Prayer Book be Comprehensive for all Cultures?” Anglican Theological Review 66.3 (Jul 1984), 280 Rasbury within the worship service as well In fact, there seems to be a need for both individually However, a combination of the two together would seem to be the balance to find, and the best route to take If Anglican churches could incorporate more spontaneity in their worship, as Ukpong calls for, and if Pentecostal churches could incorporate a liturgy into their church services, as Peter Anson makes the claim for, a seemingly truly balanced church would be the result.77 These two different traditions are very different in their approach to prayer, yet they have seemed to find a commonality in approaching the certain culture they are in order to connect with it Word Count: 7,213 Bibliography Anderson, Allan H “Book Reviews: The Evanglical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience.” Pneuma 35 (2013): 256-257 Anson, Peter F “A Prayer-bond with Anglicans.” Worship 26.6 (May 1952): 293-297 Appleton, George “Prayer: Petition” in The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Worship, pg 311 Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983 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