Anglican-and-Pentecostal-Prayer-in-East-Africa-Final-Copy

Wes Rasbury East African Ecumenical Prayer: Anglican and Pentecostal Dr Foster Issues in Global Christianity BIBH 640.W1 May 3, 2014 Rasbury The global center of Christianity has shifted from its beginnings in the Middle East, across Europe, and south to the African continent.1 The expressions of Christianity have changed as well as it encountered different cultures around the world Yet the differences are not only due to the spread of this faith, but also to the denominations that have sprung from within Christianity It is in each of these denominations that different expressions of Christianity arise; some churches emphasize this over that, while others say these words during worship rather than those words Yet, could there be a stark difference between the language and practices of Christians who, although identified as two different denominations, find themselves within the same geographical region? The following is an exploration of prayer among both Anglican and Pentecostal Christians in some East African contexts- namely Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania However, before going into the differences in prayer between these two different denominations, a common understanding must be provided The author will give a brief overview of prayer first, in order to show the framework of prayer from which this paper operates Then, a short history will be given first of the Anglican tradition, then of the Pentecostal tradition The rise and spread of each is important in understanding where these two traditions stand now Included in this brief historical synopsis of each of these traditions will be an examination of the major theological tenets of each tradition, as well as, and more pointedly for the purposes of this paper, how each views or understands prayer in a very general sense Next, a short historical account of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania will be provided for the reader in order that he or she might better understand the current religious situation within this country Finally, the paper will move to intended and identified purpose of comparing the prayers of Christians in Anglican churches and of Christians in Pentecostal churches in these countries Todd M Johnson, “Christianity in Global Context: Trends and Statistics,” Pew Forum Rasbury Prayer: Prayer is one of the oldest practices of religion in general, dating back to the time of Jesus and his ministry, and even before the common era.2 Thus, Christianity cannot claim prayer as a solely Christian construct or invention However, although prayer may be universal to religion as a whole, prayer has become a pillar in the Christian faith across all of its denominations As Charles Hodge asserts, “A prayerless Christian and pulseless man are alike impossible.”3 We see the importance of prayer in Christianity through the multiple examples seen in both the Old and New Testaments, through the different illustrations of prayer and discussions on prayer from the founding mothers and fathers of Christianity,4 as well as through, (to borrow Brandon’s language), humanity’s need to communicate with the supernatural and the divine, prayer has found a strong presence in the Christian faith Prayer within the confines of Christianity is often defined as “communication with God.”6 These exact words are given in The New Dictionary of Theology as a description and discussion of the theology of prayer.7 The ability to communicate with God rests on the There are many examples of prayer throughout the Old Testament, (the Psalms, the prayers of the kings, etc.); Examples of prayer are also seen outside of the Christian circle, and even outside of the circle of the Abrahamic faiths, (Greek and Roman religious practices) ; For more on this idea, see S.G.F Brandon, ed., “Prayer,” The Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1970), 507-509 Also see Charles W Nienkirchen, “Prayer,” The Dictionary of Christian Spirituality (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011), 166 Also, John R Tyson, ed., Invitation to Christian Spirituality (Oxford: University Press, 1999), 388 Charles Hodge, “Conference Paper” (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1879), 293 Origen, On Prayer, Life as Prayer, How to Pray; John Cassian, On Prayer, Continuous Prayer; St Francis, St Francis’ Prayer Before the Crucifix, An Untitled Prayer (Francis); Thomas Aquinas, On Prayer; Desiderius Erasmus, The Weapons of Christian Warfare; Thomas Cranmer, Prayer for the Whole State of Christ’s Church, Prayer of General Confession, Prayer of Humble Access; Teresa of Avila, Mental Prayer, The Prayer of Union; George Herbert, Prayer; Jeanne (Madame) Guyon, The Prayer of Simplicity; Hannah More, Prayer; Walter Rauschenbusch, the Social Meaning of the Lord’s Prayer; Karl Barth, The Problem of Prayer, Prayer as a Gift of God, Prayer as a Human Act, A Pastoral Prayer; Mother Teresa, Prayers All but the first of these are examples given from flipping through the table of contents looking for the word ‘prayer’ or things related to prayer in Tyson, vii-xv Brandon, 507 For more on this definition of prayer, see Donald G Bloesch, The Struggle of Prayer (Colorado Springs: Helmers & Howard, 1988), 50-66.; Also see, Wayne R Spears, The Theology of Prayer (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), 7-9 D J Tidball, “Prayer, Theology of,” The New Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988), 526527 Rasbury understanding and belief that the Christian God is a relational god, and desires a personal relationship with those who would choose to follow him.8 Thus, prayer is most commonly understood in Christianity as the open line of communication between the Christian adherent and the Christian God Prayer is an expression of the “dynamic, transformative, dialogical relationship between humans and the triune God…”9 Prayer is the way in which Christians both ask God for blessings and cry out to God in pain and sorrow; it is where Christians can openly express each and every possible human emotion imaginable to God.10 As Donald G Bloesch puts it: Christian prayer is born out of the realization that human beings in and of themselves are incapable of saving themselves from the forces of darkness within and about them In genuine prayer, we come to God with empty hands trusting solely in his mercy…we not bring God offerings that can win his favor, but we bring before him the petition of an earnest heart.11 Prayer is a necessity for human beings at large, but it has become particularly important in the life and practice of Christianity However, prayer looks differently and is expressed differently depending on a variety of different factors.12 In fact, in her overview of Christian spiritual disciplines, Adele Calhoun lists and describes fourteen different types of prayer.13 Situations might call for certain prayers, such as prayers for sick friends or family members, for financial blessings, or even for praise and thanksgiving to God for God’s work in their life For the purposes of this paper, the following five categories of different types of prayer will be considered as the framework for prayer: Tidball, 526 Nienkirchen, 166 10 Nienkirchen, 166 11 Bloesch, 19 12 John S Mbiti offers a very interesting, (although albeit somewhat older account of different African tribes and peoples, and how each prayers and refers to God Thirty people groups represented by his study that “are said to pray” are located within the three countries discussed in this paper- Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania For more on this, see John S Mbiti, Concepts of God in Africa (London: S.P.C.K 1970), 194-212 13 Adele A Calhoun, Spiritual Disciplines Handbook (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2005), 203-255 Rasbury adoration, confession, intercession, petition, and thanksgiving.14 Yet it does not only provide a means of communication between humans and God, nor does it just function as a way for humans to ask their gods for blessings, but prayer also serves a cathartic role in the lives of humans.15 This cathartic function or role of prayer is precisely why prayer is practiced across religions It is a human desire to pray, and the practice of praying serves to fill a cathartic function that one cannot find elsewhere Thus, Christianity and prayer are very much enmeshed in one another Although it cannot and should not be thought of as a Christian construct, prayer has become a central focus and practice of Christianity Not only are the adherents to Christianity humans, and therefore have this desire- this “irrepressible yearning”- to pray, but they also find this cathartic role or function filled by the practice of prayer Christians are also given, through prayer, the chance and opportunity to communicate with their God; prayer is a place where the creator and the created intersect As a result of this intersection, prayer is the place where Christians are able to ask God for blessings, to pray for others, and to listen to God Even more, Christians are given the example of prayer throughout the Bible, both in the Old as well as in the New Testament And finally, at the very basic and very frank level, Christians are called to pray, and to pray often, time and time again throughout the Bible Thus, prayer is now central to Christianity, and has, (since the third century), been a major area of study and thought within the Christian circle.16 14 K E Kirk, et al., eds., “Prayer,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality (Philadelphia: Wakefield, 1983), 307-313 ; For more on each of these individually, see John Macquarrie, “Prayer: Adoration,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 307 ; Gordon S Wakefield, “Prayer: Confession,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 308 ; Michael Hollings, “Prayer: Intercession,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 309 ; George Appleton, “Prayer: Petition,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 311 ; A Michael Ramsey, “Prayer: Thanksgiving,” The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, 312 15 See James, 361.; Also see Donald E Miller and Tetsunao Yamamori, Global Pentecostalism: The New Face of Christian Social Engagement (Berkley: University of California, 2007) 146 16 Prayer is seen throughout the Bible, but Christian writers and theologians have also spent much time and energy thinking about and discussing prayer Nienkirchen says, “Systematic discussions of prayer first appeared in the rd century when three prayer treatises were authored by three North African church fathers within fifty years of each other Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian each composed full-length prayer treatises that included a commentary on the Rasbury Prayer is major part of Christianity, and can be expressed in a variety of ways The five categories listed above help to narrow down the understanding of prayer to be discussed here There is much more that could be said on prayer, specifically in relation to ways of prayer, (whether rehearsed or extemporaneous; whether in a group, in corporate worship, or in a private setting; whether one is talking to or even at God, or one is listening to try to hear God’s voice), on specific words and language used during prayer, and even on posture taken during prayer However, most of these differences in prayer will be touched on later in this paper With this categorized understanding of prayer, this paper will now move forward toward comparing prayers of Anglican and Pentecostal Christians in East Africa, but will first examine the rise, spread, and current status of both Anglicanism and Pentecostalism The Anglican Tradition: Anglicanism was officially created in the early to middle sixteenth century, amidst the chaos ensued by the creation of The Church of England, and its ‘separation’ from the Catholic church When the king of England, King Henry VIII, desired an annulment from the Roman papal office of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused to give such an annulment to him, he created the Church of England Laws were passed that officially and legally set this church beyond the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church and the Roman see However, since this split was from the Catholic tradition and since this was the tradition that Henry VIII and the rest of England was familiar with, there was not much change to be seen initially In fact, as Spinks says, “The result was that by 1536 the English church was an independent Catholic church.”17 He goes on to say that although this new church aimed to abolish “popular devotional practices…until the death of Henry VIII, the Latin Catholic rites Lord’s Prayer, extolled as the perfect condensation of the gospel.” Nienkirchen, 169 17 Bryan D Spinks, “Anglicans and Dissenters” in The Oxford History of Christian Worship (Oxford: University, 2006), 492 Rasbury remained the norm of public worship in the English church.”18 It was not until the late seventeenth century, (1689), under the reign of Elizabeth I, that the Toleration Act was passed, and the national church of England became a fully separate and established church in its own right.19 It is through the effort to form a unified church of the state, an effort which was a reaction against and separate from the Roman Catholic Church, that the Church of England emerged Granted, at this same time, there were other Christian “greats” reacting against the Catholic Church, (such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli).20 However, the creation of the Church of England was a separate and distinct action from the Protestant Reformation, arising mostly out of the will of the king of England.21 And this new sect was created, in order for the king to obtain a divorce from his wife, yes, but also for nationalistic and political purposes.22 Regardless of the exact and precise reason or reasons why, the Church of England was established in this time, and it appointed Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury on March 30, 1533.23 Upon installation, Cranmer immediately set to work on further severing connections between the Catholic and the Anglican church, translating and publishing the litany in English instead of Latin in 1544 as it had been in the Catholic church.24 Archbishop Cranmer then published many other reforms to the liturgy including the Order of the Communion, and the Book of Common Prayer.25 This latter publication was originally very simply a rendering of “the old services…into English,” but officially replaced all of the Latin Catholic rites on Pentecost 18 Spinks, 494 Spinks, 492 20 Nathan D Mitchell, “Reforms, Protestant and Catholic” in The Oxford History of Christian Worship, 317-324 21 Spinks, 492 22 Alan Jacobs, The Book of Common Prayer: A Biography (Princeton: University Press, 2013), 23 Jacobs, 24 Spinks, 494 25 Spinks, 494 ; The Book of Common Prayer went under two revisions during the time of Cranmer For more on this, see Spinks, 494-497, and Jacobs 57-59 19 Rasbury Sunday, June 9, 1549.26 Yet, how did a denomination which started in England, and is even named “The Church of England, (ecclesia Anglicana),” become one that is present and has lasted outside of the borders of England? As Chris Hefling points out, for a hundred years or so, the Prayer Book remained within the British Isles It was introduced in Ireland and Scotland early on…its migration overseas began in the seventeenth century, as English settlers took their Anglicanism with them to newly founded ‘plantations’ and colonies.27 As this denomination continued to spread throughout the world, the title ‘Anglican’ itself “began to have the enlarged, non-geographical meaning it now has,” and the Book of Common Prayer “began to be translated into more and more non-European languages.”28 More pointedly, however, its spread into the region of East Africa “was influenced by the different characteristics of two mission societies”: The Church Mission Society (CMS), and the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa (UMCA).29 Eventually, as the mission continued to spread throughout the African continent, “A United Liturgy for East Africa, known as the East Africa United Liturgy (EAUL)” was created in 1965 and approved a year later.30 In fact, according to Mombo, the Anglican tradition has spread so much throughout East Africa that the 20 different countries within this region are represented by nine different “provinces of Anglican communion,” and that each of these countries had a greater Anglican influence in 2006 than “little or no organized Anglican presence.”31 Although it may be small in comparison to some other denominations present in this 26 Spinks, 494-495 Charles Hefling, “Introduction: Anglicans and Common Prayer” in The Oxford Guide to The Book of Common Prayer: A Worldwide Survey, edited by Charles Hefling and Cynthia Shattuck (Oxford: University Press, 2006), 3-4 28 Hefling, 29 Esther Mombo, “Rites and Books in Africa: Anglican Liturgies in Eastern Africa” in The Oxford Guide to The Book of Common Prayer: A Worldwide Survey, edited by Charles Hefling and Cynthia Shattuck (Oxford: University Press, 2006), 277 30 Mombo, 279 ; The EAUL was not available as a resource while writing this paper, but is apparently available on Amazon currently for $35.00 31 Mombo, 278 27 Rasbury region, the Anglican church definitely maintains a presence among these countries It is the idea of a common book of different prayers that began the idea of this paper Especially in contrast with extemporaneous and spontaneous prayer, having a set book in which the whole of the congregation can use to pray seems odd In fact, these two would seem to be at opposite ends of the spectrum from each other: one is a well thought-out, revised, written book of prayers for an individual or a group of people to follow along with and read from; the other is prayer spoken impromptu and ‘on the spot.’ Granted, it is not the case nor should one assume that the prayers listed in the Common Book of Prayer are the extent of prayers that Anglican adherents pray As Charles Hefling is very quick to point out, “The Prayer Book is not a prayer book, in the sense of a collection of separate prayers It is more like a playbook, the ‘script’ actors use for performing a play.”32 While there are pros and cons to both approaches in praying, and while this paper aims to explore just that, it will now shift to a discussion over the start and spread of the Pentecostal movement The Pentecostal Tradition: The Pentecostal tradition has its origins in Topeka, Kansas with Charles F Parham’s Bethel Bible School It is suggested as a fairly young movement, (as opposed to Anglicanism or even Catholicism), starting just one hundred and thirteen years ago on January 1, 1901.33 In the midst of one of Parham’s lessons on the connection between speaking in tongues and baptism in the Holy Spirit, the class is recorded as gaining the gift of glossolalia, (or tongue speaking) This message and movement was then picked up by William J Seymour, (who had sat outside the 32 Hefling, Stanley M Burgess and Gary B McGee, “The Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements: Introduction” in The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Regency Reference, 1988), 1-3 ; Although this is the date most often attributed to the rise of the Pentecostal Movement, recent scholarship has found Pentecostal expressions of faith before this date from around the world, suggesting that perhaps the similar expressions of Pentecostal faith found in the Bible never actually stopped after the first century For more on this view, see Stanley M Burgess, “Introduction” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), xv 33 Rasbury classroom and had heard and witnessed these things), to Los Angeles, California Here, Seymour preached in his Holiness style, proclaiming the message about this phenomenon, and calling for revival It was in this context that the more well-known and more familiar connection with Pentecostalism is seen- Azusa Street Azusa Street is the common connection point with the start and spread of the Pentecostal tradition Although some would argue for the earlier beginning with Parham and the Bethel Bible School, it was at the Azusa Street mission that much of the Pentecostal theology emerged 34 The excitement that this revival brought spread throughout the land, so much so that “Before long, Pentecostal revivals could be found in Canada, England, Scandinavia, Germany, India, China, Africa, and South America.”35 Thus, Pentecostalism brought with it an unprecedented energy and excitement, and soon spread throughout each of the continents In fact, this growth was so rapid that it by the middle of the twentieth century, the Pentecostal tradition was growing faster than almost every other Christian tradition.36 Eventually, this growth led to the country of Ethiopia and its surrounding countries as well in the 1950’s, as a result of the work of Finnish and Swedish missionaries.37 This initial movement gained speed quickly, and continued to grow and spread, as did a separate “indigenous Pentecostal movement” around the same time.38 Spirituality, then, within the Pentecostal tradition should also be discussed As defined by The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, spirituality is “the pietistic habits of ordinary individuals.”39 This dictionary then goes on to list “five implicit values” which are seen 34 Burgess and McGee, Burgess and McGee, 36 Burgess and McGee, 37 Jörg Haustein, “Embodying the Spirit(s): Pentecostal Demonology and Deliverance Discourse in Ethiopia,” Ethnos 76.4 (Dec 2011), 536 38 Jörg Haustein, “Historical Epistemology and Pentecostal Origins: History and Historiography in Ethiopian Pentecostalism,” Pneuma 35 (2013), 350 39 R P Splitter, “Spirituality, Pentecostal and Charismatic” in The Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Regency Reference, 1988), 804-805 35 Rasbury 1 throughout and govern Pentecostal spirituality: 1) individual experience, 2) orality, 3) spontaneity, 4) otherworldliness, and 5) a commitment to biblical authority.40 The author goes on to say: The style of prayer and praise is instructive Quite usual is collective oral prayer, all praying at once, mostly vernacular or mostly glossolalic or some mix of the two This pattern expresses the personal experience of each Such collective group prayer is usually cued by a leader, but it can be emerge spontaneously- in which cases glossolalia often predominates…Fasting often accompanies prayer, but it is rarely mandated for congregations The raising of hands in joint or individual prayer reflects literal response to biblical precedents (Exod 17:11-12) and commands (1 Tim 2:8).41 He goes on to introduce ‘proxy prayer,’ as well as other various forms found within this distinct denomination.42 While it is true that not every member nor every church practices every type of prayer, it is clear that the Pentecostal tradition practices a variety of different worship actions and disciplines, which can be seen as fitting into and illuminating the five different overarching values identified by Splitter With this understanding and overview of the different practices of those within the Pentecostal tradition, one can better understand the spirituality of someone who identifies as a Pentecostal It is clear that there are a variety of different practices practiced by the whole of the tradition However, not only adherents to the Pentecostal tradition perform and practice many different types of worship and have many different expressions of their spirituality, but they also, (very clearly), practice many different forms and styles of prayer As seen above, prayer within the Pentecostal tradition can be done in the form of dancing, proxy prayer, speaking in tongues, praying for healing, praying for freedom from demons for yourself or others, and gaining insight or wisdom or words of knowledge directly from God or the Spirit Each of these types or 40 Splitter, 804-805 Splitter, 806 42 Splitter, 806-808 ; Some would argue against the actuality of healing and prayers for healing For more on this, see Candy Gunther Brown, Testing Prayer: Science and Healing (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012) 41 Rasbury expressions of prayer can be categorized into the already given classifications of prayer above: adoration, confession, intercession, petition, and thanksgiving Prayers of exorcism fit both into the categories of intercession and petition; speaking in tongues could be understood as prayers of adoration, of confession (Rom 8:26), or of thanksgiving; prayer in the form of dancing falls into the category of either adoration or thanksgiving East Africa: With the historical contexts of both the Anglican and the Pentecostal traditions established, this paper will now move into a brief history of what is commonly referred to as ‘East Africa’ or ‘Eastern Africa.’ This region houses Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania, as well as Burundi, Comoros, Djibuti, Eritrea, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.43 Christianity is very prevalent and growing within the countries of this region- so much so that “Christians will constitute a majority of the population in 14 of Eastern Africa’s 20 countries in 2020 (and a near majority in a fifteenth, Eritrea), rising from 11 in 1970.” 44 It is projected to house nearly half, (45%), of the population of Christian on the whole of the African continent within only six years.45 The Anglican tradition has a somewhat surprising influence within this region, with projections that Eastern Africa will be home to over half, (53%), of the population of total Anglicans in Africa by the year 2020.46 Pentecostalism, however, is not as prevalent within this region, with five of the fourteen countries having total populations of Pentecostal adherents at 0%, (Comoros, Djibuti, Eritrea, Mayotte, and Somalia), and four more countries having percentages of their total populations as those adhering to the Pentecostal tradition at 43 Christianity in its Global Context (Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, 2013), 24 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 45 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 46 Christianity in its Global Context, 24 ; See also Mombo, “Anglican Liturgies in Eastern Africa,” 278 44 Rasbury percentages less than 10, (Madagascar, Malawi, Uganda, and Zimbabwe).47 Eastern Africa, then, is very clearly diverse and even different from one country to the next With this knowledge in the background, this paper will now focus in on one of those countries in particular- Ethiopia Ethiopia claims roots in Christianity from as far back as the fourth century.48 Apparently, Coptic Christianity was prevalent within this country, and the influence of Ethiopian culture upon this form of Christianity produced the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, “which was the state church until the revolution.”49 One finds reference even in the Bible of Christianity making its way back to Ethiopia, (at least, assuming the eunuch returned to Ethiopia after his encounter with Paul to reassume his duties as treasurer).50 Thus, Christianity would not seem to be a new development by any means to the Ethiopian people or country In fact, the Christian population within Ethiopia has taken off in new and surprising ways, so much so that, according to a fairly recent article by PewResearch, a large number of Christians has emigrated, (and continues to emigrate), from Ethiopia to the United States.51 Yet, due to its very diverse population, and thus, diverse religious population, Christianity is not the only religion vying for attention and adherents in this country, which has led to some serious internal tension.52 Both Kenya and Tanzania represent a slightly different situation and population than Ethiopia Within these two countries, the Anglican population is much higher, (as is the 47 Burgess, “Part I: Global Survey” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 47-282 48 D J Garrand, “Ethiopia” in The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 85 ; This claim is also supported by Paul Marshall, Lela Gilbert, and Nina Shea in Persecuted: The Global Assault on Christians (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2013), 271 49 Garrand, 85 50 Acts 8:26-40 51 Pew Forum, “Faith on the Move: The Religious Affiliation of International Migrants,” (March 8, 2012) 52 Joachim Persoon, “New Perspectives on Ethiopian and African Christianity: Communalities and Contrasts in Twentieth Century Religious Experience,” Exchange 34.4 (Nov 2005), 311 ; See also Garrand, 85, and Marshall et al., 270-71 Rasbury percentage of Christians out of the total population).53 This is supported as well by Esther Mombo when she identifies that both Kenya and Tanzania each have their own Anglican communion, (The Anglican Church of Kenya, and The Anglican Church of Tanzania), while Ethiopia remains under the Anglican communion of Jerusalem.54 Not only these two have larger Anglican populations, but both Kenya and Tanzania also represent a higher population of Pentecostal adherents as well, whereas the largest represented denomination of the total population in Ethiopia remains the Orthodox tradition.55 Anglican vs Pentecostal Prayer As hinted at above, the Pentecostal tradition emphasizes and practices more spontaneous prayer than the Anglican tradition does One reason that this spontaneous form of prayer seems to be connecting more with people in East Africa is due to the culture of East Africa itself This region, and largely Africa as a whole, is based more in orality than in literacy In fact, Walter Hollenweger supports this claim, saying that the spirituality of Christians in places considered Third World is not “based on books and printed liturgies or on the personal study of the Bible, but on the experience of the presence of God in worship and everyday life,” and that these experiences are expressed in many different ways, including “songs, proverbs, stories, parables and dances.”56 A reason for the emphasis on the spoken rather than the written is the nature of the country’s economic status Granted, this is a bold claim to make However, the fact remains that the continent is mostly comprised of countries listed as “Third World.” Brinkman asserts this when he says, 53 Jason Mandryk, “Kenya” in Operation World (Colorado Springs: Biblica Publishing, 2010), 501 ; Jason Mandryk, “Tanzania” in Operation World (Colorado Springs: Biblica Publishing, 2010), 808 54 Mombo, 278 55 Mandryk, 502 ; Mandryk, 808 ; Jason Mandryk, “Ethiopia” in Operation World (Colorado Springs: Biblica Publishing, 2010), 328 56 Walter J Hollenweger, “The Ecumenical Significance of Oral Christianity,” Ecumenical Review 41.2 (Apr 1989), 259 Rasbury To a significant degree this is a matter of, on the one hand, the Christians with the book and, on the other hand, the Christians without the book, that is to say: of a contrast between literate and illiterate, between those who can afford to buy a book and also have had the advantage of an education, so they can read it, and those who have never yet been to school and therefore have never had a book in their hands.57 While the countries are becoming more and more developed, this issue of economic disadvantage among many of the continent’s inhabitants still remains Thus, this understanding would give some background and reasoning for the claim that the Pentecostal tradition is rising at the rate that it is among Third World countries In fact, within Ethiopia, as Allan Anderson claims, “since the fall of the Mengistu regime in 1991, Ethiopia has among the fastest-growing Evangelical churches in the world.”58 This rise in these churches and denominations is due, at least in part to the nature of the tradition, and to the culture it is permeating Another reason for an apparent preference toward the Pentecostal tradition, still housed under the larger category of relating to the culture of East Africa as well as related to the preference of oral tradition, is the religious culture already present in the larger context of Africa as a whole.59 In fact, as Timothy Morgan puts it, “East Africa has experienced Pentecost continually for nearly 80 years.”60 As Donatus Pius Ukpong puts it, “Africans’ responses to God are often communicated in the form of spontaneous personal prayer.”61 This spontaneity in prayer and worship in an African context is also seen in different churches throughout the documentary 57 Martien E Brinkman, Progress in Unity?: Fifty Years of Theology Within the World Council of Churches: 19451995: A Study Guide (Louvain: Peeters Press, 1995), 162 58 Allan Heaton Anderson, “Book Reviews: The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience” Pneuma 35 (2013), 256 59 Jason Mandryk identifies the following numbers: Ethiopia-