THE CONCEPT OF LABOUR AND SOCIAL RELATIONS IN CLAUDE AKE’S PHILOSOPHY- IMPLICATIONS FOR AFRICA

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study The basic natural impulse of man is the preservation of his existence What this implies is that man tries to protect his existence foremost before considerations are given to other needs It means therefore, that he has to live in the first instance, before his essence This is the primacy of the human existence which, for existentialist thinkers, is what should genuinely engage philosophers To live or to preserve his existence, man must keep his body nourished by food; and to provide for food means that he must work This means that he must use his energy to convert what is given in nature to become useful to him This work is therefore motivated by the fact that labour which should serve as a human activity that allows man to sustain his very existence has become a tool for self destruction arising from the class divisions, antagonisms and conflicts the appropriation of the products of labour engenders in modern society This is more so because even though the prodigality of nature has provided man with the basic materials to meet his existential needs, however, the provident of nature rarely exists in forms directly suitable to meet man’s needs It is, therefore, required of human labour to make nature suitable for his use And in so doing, in modern terms, society is divided into antagonistic and self destructive classes of those who own only their labour power and those who own the means of production and so appropriate the product of labour and even manipulate the labour power of others Why is it so? Labour is, therefore, what man does to provide food for the nourishment of his bodily needs, to sustain his existence For this reason, Claude Ake asserts that economic productivity is the primary activity of man If man must live, according to him, then he must work to provide food for himself Ake avers that it is the importance of this that is amply reflected in the consciousness of men that they give themselves appellations according to the type of work they engage in: for instance, a teacher is one who engages in teaching to earn a wage to provide for food; a doctor, for a medical practitioner; an engineer; a trader etc For him, although it is true that man does not live by bread alone, but it is a more fundamental truth that man cannot live without bread The fact that one is no longer preoccupied by his daily economic needs, he asserts, means that the needs are being met, but that does not, for him, take away the urgency of this need It is through human ingenuity from his labour that discoveries are made to provide for his other needs such as shelter, clothing, and so forth, to protect man from the unfriendly conditions of his immediate environment It is so important and central to man that his life goes beyond just mere subsistence: Man creates and recreates his entire life By work, he builds Dams, irrigates deserts and fashions tools, which give him new capacities and new opportunities, for acquiring knowledge By creating and recreating his economic and other material conditions man also creates culture, history and civilization Most importantly, he also creates his consciousness….4 Man has also used his labour power to structure his society and establish culture and patterns In the history of human society, labour has played the most vital determinant role in social relations Adam Smith supports this view when he writes in his Wealth of Nations that society tends to benefit more when labour is social; when there is a division in the productive process where one performs functions he is best skilled He states: “the greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, the greater part of skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is any where directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour”.5 It is in this socialization of production that modern societies are formed, and human relationships are fostered; hence labour shape the character of all human societies Society is often times polarized according to dynamics arising from the relative importance placed on some aspects of labour over others in the production process Ake notes in the production process, some appropriate the labour of others and benefit from the proceeds which cause the major division between those who own the labour power and those who appropriate the labour power of others He adds that: Everyman is rich or poor according to the degree in which he can afford to enjoy the necessities, conveniences, and amusements of human life, but after the division of labour has once thoroughly taken place, it is but a very small part of these with which a man’s labour can supply him, the far greater part of them he must derive from the labour of other people, and he must be rich or poor according to the quantity of that labour which he can command, or which he can afford to purchase.6 Societies are thus made up of people classed into relations in view of those who sell their labour power for self sustenance and those who use the labour of others for production This has become a major source of division and conflict in modern societies The study of the economic structure of society for Ake will make it simpler to understand other aspects of society He asserts that: Once we understand what the material assets and constrains of a society are, how the society produces goods to meet its material needs, how the goods are distributed, and what types of social relations arise from the organization, we have come a long way to understanding the culture of that society, its laws, its religious system, its political system and even its mode of thought.7 Ake therefore outlines that the primary cause of the problems in Africa are products of labour relations owing largely to the introduction of capital relations from the West 1.2 Statement of the Problem This study is motivated by the incessant conflicts in the Niger Delta Area experienced by the researcher These conflicts are even experienced in the wider Nigerian society and in Africa in general A closer survey of these reveal that these conflicts are engendered by a lack of the basic necessities of life relating to a poor state of social and economic development, in the midst of an abundant resource base in almost all parts of Africa Conflicts are therefore, products of frustrations resulting from this lack and want of the basic needs of man in Africa The researcher sees Claude Ake’s conception of labour and the class divisions it brings upon society, which in turn creates constant antagonism and conflicts, relevant to the African experience, hence the choice of this topic as a basis for an understanding of the causes of conflicts in Africa and to proffer ways of resolving them Claude Ake defines labour as human effort applied in production for the provision of food for the sustenance of his being He notes that it is through human labour that discoveries are made to provide for his other needs such as shelter, clothing, tools, and so forth, to protect him from the unfriendly conditions of his immediate environment Apart from being a means towards the provision of food for the sustenance of his being and the discovery of tools to meet his other immediate needs, labour is also used for the creation and recreation of his economic and other material conditions, he adds However, Ake notes that contemporary experience reveals that as societies develop and owing to the complexities in the production process, social relations are formed in relation to those who own the, means of production and so regulate the other factors in the productive process, including the labour of others and those who not This leads to antagonism between these social groups While the class of those who benefit from this arrangement attempt to maintain the status quo, the other class struggles to change the existing system For him therefore, there is an intrinsic link between labour and social relations Societies are therefore plagued with conflicts and strife between these two antagonistic classes Ake therefore studies the prevalent social conflicts in Africa and links these to the social relations of production introduced into Africa through colonialism and imperialism The question is therefore, what is labour? Of what importance is labour to man? How does labour engender social divisions? How these divisions create conflicts in Africa, in Claude Ake’s conception? How does Ake address the problems of ethnicity, wars, poverty, bad governance, poor infrastructural development, corruption and so on, in Africa and what lesson can Africa learn? The problems which this study sets to solve are, Ake blames colonialism for some of the social problems in Africa; to what extent is this assertion true? If Africa’s problems are products of colonialism, what of other nations which were colonized yet they are advancing? For Ake, Africa’s problems are caused by foreign agents, what role would the Africans play in tackling their problems? Are there no possibilities of Africans contributing to their problems, considering the fact that direct political control has ended a long time ago in most of Africa? Is there any possibility of African charting a new course for African development based on the dignity of labour under a harmonious social relation? 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to critically examine Claude Ake’s conception of labour and social relations with a view to showing its implications for Africa, especially Nigeria It is an attempt to (a) identify the meaning of labour in Ake’s social and political philosophy (b) place his conception of labour within the context of social and economic conflicts in Africa (c) argue that within Ake’s thought, the contradictions and conflicts around labour are linked in a fundamental way to colonialism and its impact in Africa, and (d) finally the papers argues that resolving the contradictions generated by colonialism is possible within the context of genuine democratic transformation in Africa 1.4 Thesis The study establishes that Ake’s theory of labour and social relations is essentially Marxist in orientation with negative implications for Africa, given the role of colonialism and imperialism in Africa’s socio-economic history 1.5 Scope of the Study This work will concentrate on Ake’s thought as it relates to labour and the dynamics of social relations in Africa While doing this, the contradictions and conflicts of labour and social relations in Africa will be highlighted 1.6 Significance of the Work This work will expose in a long way the major causes of social problems and the attendant developmental malaise in Africa, especially, Nigeria, highlighting how they can be addressed It shall add to the library of existing literature on the subject and also serve as a reference material to scholars for further studies 1.7 Methodology The qualitative research design was used for the study The data for this work were sourced basically from the library, books and journal The historical and expository methods were used to situate Claude Ake and his place in history while exposing his concepts of labour and social relations These concepts were further subjected to critical analysis and evaluations NOTES Claude Ake, A Political Economy of Africa (Ibadan: Longman, 2005), Ake,1 Francis O C Njoku, Development and African Philosophy: A Theoretical Reconstruction of African Socio-Political Economy (New York: Universe, 2004), 37 Ake, a Political Economy of Africa, Adam Smith, the Wealth of Nations [with Introduction] by Alan B Krueger (New York: Bantam Books, 2003), Smith,43 Ake, A Political Economy of Africa, 1-2 CHAPTER TWO 2.1 Literature Review The concept of labour has engaged humanity since the earliest of times to date It is on this account that the story of creation in the Christian conception states that a woman was made out of man to be his help mate, to support him in his labour.1 Labour is, therefore, what man engages in, using the products of nature to meet his needs It is synonymous with work In this chapter, we shall a review on the concept of labour from the Ancient through Contemporary times In the prehistoric times, it is on record that the early man used his labour to subdue nature for his survival Through human progressions, human survival was made while hunting for games and gathering of fruits to the discovering, via accident, of fire It is labour that has tailored the progression of the human race in terms of the taming of nature for self- sustenance This human ingenuity brought about the evolution of agriculture It forecloses Timothy Fik’s definition of agricultural system as “any mutually interacting or interdependent groups of agents, factors, and/or institutions involved in the planting and tending of crops…and or the caring for and raising of livestock… for the purpose of producing food….”2 The importance of labour through agriculture was underscored in the ancient Egyptian and Babylonian mythology where cults were established for 10 36 Ake, 17 37 Ake, 19 38 Ake, 20 39 Ake, 21 22 40 Ake, 22 41 Ake, 22 42 Ake, 23 124 CHAPTER SIX EVALUATION, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 6.1 Introduction It is discernible that Africa at present is in the forefront of discourse globally, basically for reasons which include development crises, prevalent poverty, diseases, environmental degradation, ethnic violence, bad leadership, corruption, human right abuses, poor infrastructural development, terrorism and the occasioned widening gap between Africa and the rest of the globe Claude Ake is indeed one notable African thinker who attempts to tackle these problems and whose works have elicited debate in scholarship in the continent and beyond His basic contention is that Africa’s problems are caused basically by her contact with the capitalist West and the introduction of an alien social relations into a hitherto communitarian society by the West In the considered opinion of many, Ake is indeed an icon whose incisive thought and works have proposed the much needed antidote to Africa’s malaise and stagnated development A careful analysis of his ideas is therefore required if Africa need to transform from her present state to compete with the rest of the world in terms of development 6.2 Evaluation Claude Ake, from our earlier analysis remains one of the most influential scholars from the African world His logical application of the material method 125 to the explanation of the African condition, noting that the introduction of capitalism from the West is the foundation of her underdevelopment, is thought provoking Ake observes that labour is primary, if man need to remain alive; and so production is man’s primary activity He adds that within the productive process, the means of labour, that is, the tools and other aids needed for production, are so important that without this, man’s labour power becomes useless and crude He thus avers that it is the deprivation of the African from developing his means of labour that colonialism, with its capitalist intentions, yielded a state of want and crises in Africa He emphasizes the importance of these theoretically and existentially without which man cannot produce the materials conditions of his existence, for “a person deprived of the means of production becomes helpless and in danger of perishing, for even his labour power (his individual mental and physical assets) cannot help him, since he has no tools to produce with and resources on which to apply his labour.” This, for him, is the basis or foundation for the existence of the most “fundamental inequalities, conflicts and contradictions of society”.2 He attributes this conflicts and lack of development in Africa to her colonial experience The crux of Ake’s thought, as it concerns Africa, is that, capitalism is the basic cause of the social crises, underdevelopment and all other conflicts therein For him therefore, ethnicity, religious crises, corruption, poverty, 126 political confusion, and other social malaise bedeviling African can only be understood and solved if one applies the material method in seeking solutions to these problems Reflecting further, it is clear that labour is thus a concept which is central to deep philosophical insight Ake believes that Africa is a marginalised continent It is marginalised because of the existence of international division of labour, and that in the division of labour, Africa belongs to the exploited class as against the exploiter countries in Europe, America and Asia The exploiter countries have commodity power enough to exploit and earn income from other countries They also have the advancement in technology, which Ake says is an advancement and a product of direct human labour Through human activities, we have created machines, advanced technologies that have become the driving force in international modern production It is these machines which these countries have in high quality and quantity that have weakened the possibility of Africa being a major player in global economic activities Ake reasons that Africa is not registering in global economic activities because her production capacity is clearly not noticed in the global market There is nothing that is produced in Africa that makes her a major player in the world economy Even African countries that are mentioned in the world economy are so mentioned because of the raw materials, crude oil for instance, which they supply to the developed countries The danger here is that there is a careful movement away from petroleum energy to other sources of 127 energy which means that the survival through petroleum products will end and the danger this will pose to countries such as Nigeria can be better imagined That takes us back to earlier times in human history, because African countries will go back to farming Imagine who will buy the food produced in Africa, because most countries in the advanced world have self sufficiency in food production There is a danger that the current division of labour in the international economy will produce effects that will possibly weaken Africa the more in future It means, there is a need for an alarmist reorientation of the African populace, leadership and scholarship to begin to take steps, which Ake argues, should constitute essentially in political reforms The reason why Africa has refused to develop is because of bad politics, and that except Africa have the right political environment, which in his conception is a democratic environment, development will be an illusion What it means is that, while reflecting on the place of labour in the survival of the continent, one can identify bad politics as the bane of Africa’s problems What kind of politics then we need to throw up as a people to address these problems? Ake’s response is a democratic environment Ake spent his time expressing democracy as that which relies solely on the people He refers to it as people’s power, where the people are involved in the decision making process It involves an existentialist approach to issues, which allows the people make their own choices and formulating policies on issues affecting them Ake, based on his perception of issues, condemns all forms of endogenous approach 128 to development, because for him, no genuine development can be driven from outside It must start from the people, which must involve their energies and their resources The full labour power needed to drive Africa’s development can only come from a conscious African mind; from within and not through self defeatist propaganda of a being a marginalized continent 6.3 Summary and Conclusion In our careful study of the concept of labour and social classification in Ake’s philosophy, the study observes and agrees with him that labour plays a primary role in human existence It is basically through labour that human relations are formed, which stratify society into classes, of those who have the means of production, and those who only own their labour power, and as such, must sell their labour power in order to survive We also notes that colonialism and imperialism in Africa introduced social relations based on capitalism, which has caused and aided most of Africa’s contemporary problems The study therefore is of the contention that a resolution of the developmental challenges in Africa can only be achieved, if attempt is made to understand the ethnic, political, and other social problems in Africa as products of this capitalist penetration We agree with Ake that Africa, in this analysis, can only overcome her challenges through a conscious effort at solving her problems by herself, because as there are social classes in a society, there are indeed classes among countries and races, based on their social relations of 129 production We have bourgeoisie countries and proletariat countries and races The world is a capitalist competitive market, and so, it is either Africans rise up to their developmental challenges themselves, or goes into extinction in the global competition Blaming all of Africa’s problems on her colonial history, the study reasons, will not solve any problem Africans must take responsibility and evolve ways of developing themselves Africa was not the only continent colonized Asian states, such as China, also suffered same fate like Africa; yet most of the Asian states are competing favourably with their imperial countries in contemporary global economics Why is Africa’s case different? Development consists of man’s attempt at using the provident of nature for a better wellbeing It involves the pooling together of resources in order to organize environmental and social relations for the enhancement of the member of the society.3It is our opinion that the West tend to have better model of development Therefore, learning from their model and experience is not bad If the Western sciences show better promises to an enhanced human condition in Africa, then there is nothing wrong in using them as prototypes Western social science, therefore, is not a form of imperialism It is indeed true, as Fidelis Okafor argues,4 that there are other parts to the truth, to the development of the human mind and his environment, but in doing this, even methods may differ; we must seek models that are best suitable and amenable 130 to development Africa needs to adopt Western capitalist principles, but strictly regulated by the state, if she must develop There is nothing wrong in competitive production Even the means of production which we discovered, in the course of this work, as what primarily leads to social classes and relations, evolves through rational creations and not by emotive group sentiments We must adopt ideologies which are amenable to human development Western capitalism leads to development, hence Africa must adopt it Even China and other Asian societies have seen the need for capitalism and have embraced it Capitalism allows competition, which encourages the development of human faculties Africa must develop her faculties and should not remain dormant, ruminating under the sentiments and psychological bondage of her imperial history This history is no longer an excuse for her poor state of development Development is not a perception of domination and shaping of destinies,5 it is, rather, a conscious, creative activity; and Africa cannot develop through horse-trading and shifting of responsibilities The capitalist’s attitude produces a society where satisfaction of demands can be met; where honesty, punctuality and above all, industry are encouraged.6 The problem of Africa is not merely capitalism It is rather, that of corruption, and hypocrisy Development cannot be achieved by mere proclamation of socialism We agree with Willie Okowa7 that development can only be achieved through hard work, disciplined commitment and an intelligent application of the human faculties, not through prayers, emotions 131 and wishful thinking Capitalist competition, in our considered opinion, is most suitable for development Africa must therefore adopt it because it promotes competitiveness and specialization which are some of the ideals required for development In agreeing with the arguments of Okowa and others who share his opinion, we however, conclude that social inequalities are caused basically by man’s relative position in terms of production In Africa, social inequalities are products of a new social system, capitalism, introduced into Africa by her contact with the West through colonialism and imperialism This alien system, apart from the social inequalities it creates by alienating the African from his resources and labour, also engenders confusions on the ideal ideologies to adopt The social inequalities and confusions engender conflicts A resolution of the incessant crises and conflicts in Africa can only be made when the people themselves are allowed to drive the developmental processes, including their resources and the means to the exploration of these resources 132 NOTES Stanley C Igwe How Africa Underdeveloped Africa (Port Harcourt: Professional Printers and Publishers, 2010), 19 See Chinua Achebe, The Problem With Nigeria Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1998 Francis O.C Njoku, Development and African Philosophy: A Theoretical Reconstruction of African Socio-Political Economy (New York: iUniverse, 2004), 17 Njoku, 16 Njoku, 41 Fidelis U Okafor, ‘African Philosophy in Comparison with Western Philosophy’, Journal of Value Inquiry, Vol.31 (1997), 251 267 See Willie J Okowa, How the Tropics Underdeveloped the Negro: A Questioning Theory of Development Port Harcourt: Paragraphics, 1996 133 BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES Ake, Claude A Political Economy of Africa Ibadan: Longman, 2005 Ake, Claude Democracy and Development in Africa Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2003) Ake, Claude Revolutionary Pressures in Africa London: Zed Press, 1978 Ake, Claude Social Science as Imperialism: The Theory of Political Development Ibadan: IUP, 1979 Ake, Claude ‘A Definition of Political Stability’, Comparative Politics, Vol.7, No,2 (Jan.,1975):270—283.http//www.jstor.org/stable/421552 Ake, Claude ‘Charismatic Legitimation and Political Integration’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vo.9, No.1 (Oct., 1966):113.http//www.jstor.org/stable/177832 Ake, Claude ‘Explanatory Notes on the Political Economy of Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol 14, No (Mar., 1976) Cambridge University Press.http://www.jstor.org/stable/159645 Ake, Claude ‘Explaining Political Instability in New States’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vo.11, No.3 (Sept., 1973):347-359 http//www.jstor.org/stable/159604 Ake, Claude ‘The Future of the State in Africa’, International Political Science Review Vol.6 No.1 (1985):105 http//www.jstor.org/stable/ 1600973 Ake, Claude ‘Pan-Africanism and African Governments’ Review of Politics Vol 27 No.4(Oct., 1965):532-541.http//www.jstor.org/stable/1405507 Ake, Claude ‘Right, Utility, and Rousseau’ The Western Political Quarterly, The Western Political Quarterly,Vol 20 No.1(March, 1967):5-15.http// www.jstor.org/stable/444798 Ake, Claude ‘The Unique Case of African Democracy’ International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944), Vo 69 134 No.2(April,1993):239-244.http//www.jstor.org/stable/2621592 Ake, Claude ‘The Social Contract Theory and the Problem of Politicisation: The Case of Hobbes.’ The Western Political Quarterly, Vol 23, No.3 (Sept., 1970):463 470.http//www.jstor.org/stable/446566 SECONDARY SOURCES Arowosegbe, Jeremiah O Decolonising the Social Sciences in the Global South: Claude Ake and the Praxis of Knowledge Production in Africa African Studies Centre working paper 79, 2008 Efemini, Andrew, ed Ake and African Development: Selected Issues Port Harcourt: Paragraphics, 2002 Efemini, Andrew O Claude Ake’s Philosophy of Development: Implications for Nigeria Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press, 2003 Jinadu, Adele ‘Claude Ake (1939-1996): An Appreciation’ African Journal of PoliticalScience (1996), Vol.1, No.2, 232-239 In archive.lib.msu.edu/ agps001002007 Accessed 4/1/2013 Jinadu, Adele Social Science and the Challenges of Peace and Development in Africa: The Contributions of Claude Ake Uppsala University Lecture, Department of Peace and Conflict Research February, 18, 2004 Obi Cyril and Ukoha Ukiwo, www.nai.uu.se/Claude-Ake-biotext-2010 Accessed 05/01/2013 Pino, Catherine Utscomparativeethics.wordpress.com/…/Claude-Ake-theafrican-context-of-human-rights Accessed 4/1/2013 Wand, Bernard ‘Ake on Political Obligation and Political Dissent: A Gloss’, Canadian Journal of Political Science Vol No.1 (March 1970) GENERAL SOURCES Achebe, Chinua The Problem with Nigeria Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1998 Anselm, Anselm’s Basic Writings la Salle,III: Open Court Publishers, 1962 Augustine Confession Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1961 135 Awolowo, Obafemi The problems of Africa: The Need for Ideological Reappraisal London: Macmillan, 1978 Bauer, Peter Thomas Equality, the Third World and Economic Delusion London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981 Cahn, Steven M Classics of Western Philosophy, 4th ed Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1995 Durant, Will The Story of Philosophy New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961 Feuer, Lewis S ed Marx and Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy New York: Anchor Books, 1959 Fik, Timothy J The Geography of Economic Development: Regional Changes, Global Challenges, 2nd ed Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000 Giddens, Anthony Sociology, 3rd ed Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997 Gurr, Ted Robert Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethno-political Conflicts Washinton DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995 Hale, Sylvia M Controversies in Sociology: A Canadian Introduction Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd, 1990 Igwe Stanley C How Africa Underdeveloped Africa Port Harcourt: Professional Printers and Publishers, 2010 Laski, Harold J A Grammar of Politics London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982 Lawal, Gbenga The Normative Impediments to African Development: Internalist and Externalist Interpretations, Journal of Applied Science Research, Vol No.9 (2006):637—641 Lock, John Two Treatises of Civil Government P Laslett, ed Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967 Marx, Karl, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, in Marx and Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy Lewis S Feuer, ed New York: Anchor Books, 1959 136 Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy Lewis S Feuer, ed New York: Anchor Books, 1959 Maxim Gorky, Brainy Quote www Brainyquote.com/ quotes/author/ m/maxim _gorky.html Accessed 17/01/2013 Meredith, Martin The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence, London: Free Press, 2006 Mutiso, Gideon-Cyrus m and S.W Rohio Readings in African Political Thought London: Heinemann, 2007 Nnolim Okwudiba Ethnic politics in Nigeria Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1978 Nietzsche, Friedrich Twilight of the Idols R.J Hollingdale, trans Germany: Penguin Classics, 1990 Njoku, Francis O C Development and African Philosophy: A Theoretical Reconstruction of African Socio-Political Economy New York: iUniverse, 2004 Okafor, Fidelis U ‘African Philosophy in Comparison with Western Philosophy’, Journal of Value Inquiry, Vol 31 (Netherlands, 1997): 251—267 Okafor, Fidelis U ‘In Defense of Afro-Japanese Ethnophilosophy’, Philosophy East and West: A Quarterly of Comparative Philosophy Vol.47 No.3, (1997): 363—381 Okere, T.I., ed “Debt Burden and Development in Africa: Problems and Prospects” Owerri: Assumpta Press, 2005 Okowa, Willie J How the Tropics Underdeveloped the Negro: A Questioning Theory of Development Port Harcourt: Paragraphics, 1996 Omeregbe, Joseph A Simplified History of Western Philosophy Vol [Modern Philosophy] Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publications, 1991 Plato The Republic, Bk11 Desmond Lee, trans London: Penguin Books, 1987 137 Robert Filmer, Patriacha www.constitution.org/eng/patriacha.htm Accessed:18/1/2013 Rodney, Walter How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Washington DC: Howard University Press, 1974 Russell, Bertrand History of Western Philosophy 2nd ed London: Paperbacks, 1981 Schraeder, Peter J African Politics and Society: A Mosaic in Transformation 2nd ed Belmont: Wadsworth, 2004 Smith, Adam The Wealth of Nations with Introduction by Alan B Krueger New York: Bantham Books, 2003 Stumpf, Samuel Enoch and James Fieser Philosophy: History and Problems 6th ed New York:McGraw-Hill, 2003 Smith, J.W Economic Democracy: The political Struggle of the Twenty-First Century, 3rd ed The Institute for Economic Democracy, 2003 Trotsky, Leon In Defense of Marxism New York: Merit Publishers, 1965 138 ... factors, and/ or institutions involved in the planting and tending of crops? ?and or the caring for and raising of livestock… for the purpose of producing food….”2 The importance of labour through... hence the choice of this topic as a basis for an understanding of the causes of conflicts in Africa and to proffer ways of resolving them Claude Ake defines labour as human effort applied in production... servant of the king, and whether the king had the right to invest bishops with the insignia of their office 19 Economic considerations, in relationship with labour, were therefore, features of this