INTRODUCTION
In 2003, member countries of the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education recognized assessment in special needs education as a significant concern Consequently, in 2004, the Agency initiated a study focused on assessment practices in mainstream primary settings that promote inclusion.
The initial phase of the project included several planned activities, notably a literature review on assessment practices in primary inclusive education settings outside of Europe This document summarizes the key findings from the literature examined Additionally, a compilation of 'Useful Materials' with abstracts and availability details is provided, accessible on the Agency's website: www.european-agency.org.
A team of special education consultants from NAREM Associates, UK, collaborated with the Agency's project management team to conduct the review The Agency Assessment project team has presented the final results of this work.
This review aims to provide an overview of key issues in English language literature from non-European countries, focusing on assessment policy and practice in primary inclusive classrooms While the methodology will be detailed in the following section, it's important to note that this review is not exhaustive or in-depth due to time constraints and the vast number of available sources Instead, it highlights significant challenges faced by various countries and compiles useful materials and references for further consideration in the project.
The review initially aimed to concentrate on assessment practices, particularly evidence-based research that identifies key factors for effective assessment in primary inclusive classrooms However, developments within the Agency project and an initial quick scan of existing materials prompted a shift in focus Consequently, the review also considers assessment policy issues alongside practical applications as reflected in the literature.
As part of the Agency Assessment project, information was gathered on general and special needs education assessment policies A wealth of data is accessible on major National websites regarding policy initiatives, leading to an overview of key strategies from five primarily English-speaking countries presented in Section 3.
Section 4 of this report highlights key issues related to assessment practices identified in published research, while Section 5 summarizes the main conclusions drawn from the overall review Following these sections, a comprehensive reference list and a compilation of officially consulted websites are provided Additionally, all primary sources referenced in the report are included in the 'Useful Materials' section, offering detailed availability information.
This report maintains consistent terminology aligned with the Agency Assessment project, particularly distinguishing between assessment and evaluation According to Keeves/UNESCO (1994), assessment pertains to judgments about individuals or small groups based on evidence, while evaluation focuses on non-person-centered factors like organizations, curricula, and teaching methods Additionally, measurement is defined as assessment or evaluation that incorporates numerical quantifiers.
The team acknowledges that this report may only scratch the surface of the extensive material available on the topic Nonetheless, it aims to stimulate discussion and bring attention to key issues that warrant further investigation in the next phases of the Agency Assessment project.
METHODOLOGY
Review Parameters
This review aimed to identify potential challenges faced by various countries rather than focusing on a specific research question or hypothesis While the selection of material was inherently selective, efforts were made to include relevant content by establishing diverse search parameters in collaboration with the Agency project team.
At a general level, it was agreed that the review should focus upon Assessment for
Learning and that alternative/related terms such as formative assessment, classroom based assessment, curriculum based assessment would also be used for identifying materials.
The review process was carried out alongside other project activities, leading to a decision to expand its focus Initially centered on assessment practices, the review now also addresses legal and statutory frameworks as well as policies affecting assessments in inclusive settings, highlighting their influence on the overall assessment process.
The review will focus on evidence-based assessment practices, specifically examining methods for assessing pupils with special educational needs It will also explore the various purposes of assessment, including administrative, selection, and summative functions, and how these purposes influence assessment for learning.
The review will concentrate on assessment policy and practice, specifically examining materials from non-European countries, with a particular emphasis on the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand Additionally, only articles published in English will be included in the analysis.
• Relate to primary education settings;
• Refer to inclusive education, mainstreaming or integration;
• Referred to pupils with SEN, disabilities or handicaps (a range of terms for special needs);
• Refer to assessment practice, curriculum based assessment, educational assessment, formative assessment and so on);
The final review will consist of a synthesis report that includes a comprehensive reference list formatted in the Harvard citation style, detailing all key research studies reviewed Additionally, it will feature an annotated bibliography of supplementary resources organized according to an agreed-upon template This information will be compiled in the 'Useful Materials' section provided separately, aiming to offer evidence and insights that can effectively inform policy and practice.
Methods Used
The following main methods of searching for and identifying material for review were used:
- Searches of restricted access academic electronic databases (ERIC; British Education Index, Australian Education Index);
- Searches of open access electronic databases (CIRRIE; EducOnline)
- A search of the specialist international abstracting journal Special Educational Needs Abstracts;
- Consultation of all identified countries' Ministry of Education and related websites;
- General internet searches using specialist search tools (ATHENS) and open access search engines (Google, Alta Vista);
A variety of strategies were employed to gather information for the sections on assessment policy and practice Most of the references in section 4, which focuses on assessment practice, were sourced from the ERIC database and desktop library searches In contrast, the data presented in section 3, concerning assessment policy, was obtained through a review of official websites.
Through the implementation of these strategies, we were able to assess their effectiveness in gathering relevant material for this review While a significant volume of material was identified, not all of it pertained to this report Three key observations are particularly noteworthy.
The terminology used as search parameters often failed to yield relevant materials, particularly due to differences in assessment terms between the USA and Australia For instance, the term "alternate assessment" requires clarification before it can be effectively utilized in searches.
- Searches of non-European journals and publications resulted in a large number of European (country focussed or authored) articles being identified;
Despite numerous academic articles meeting search criteria, few focus on assessment practices specifically within inclusive settings, often addressing aspects of assessment, inclusion, or practice in isolation This indicates a scarcity of accessible evidence-based material on the topic, with the review highlighting that such resources are more readily available from European sources compared to non-European ones.
Internet searches yielded a vast amount of content related to assessment policy and research practices; however, the quality of this information varied significantly, with minimal evidence-based material available.
A significant amount of relevant 'grey literature' consists of theses and research dissertations published online, indicating that small-scale research is actively being conducted For instance, Berman's work exemplifies this trend.
A 2001 PhD thesis from the University of New England, Australia, presents a comprehensive analysis of assessment theory, particularly in the context of mathematics teaching Although it does not focus directly on inclusion, its methodologies and insights on 'dynamic' assessment may hold relevance Nevertheless, the challenge of identifying, compiling, and integrating such valuable resources into a unified knowledge base for assessment policy and practice remains unresolved.
The review process has been selective due to concerns about both the quantity and quality of information, particularly its reliability Multiple examples have been included to highlight key issues; however, for certain topics, only single research studies or official policy statements were available, which the project team may reference or explore further in the future.
It is important to clarify that the sources referenced in this report, including reports, books, papers, and websites, have not undergone any critique and are not intended as a discursive argument regarding assessment policy and practice Instead, they serve as examples of current issues in the debate on assessment for inclusive practice in non-European countries.
ASSESSMENT POLICY
Australia
The main source of information on the Australian education system is available from the Ministry of Education (http://www.dest.gov.au/)
This includes information on the Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century
The national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century focus on strengthening schools as collaborative learning communities involving teachers, students, families, and the wider community, including business and industry These goals aim to enhance the status and quality of the teaching profession while developing a nationally recognized curriculum and assessment systems that promote educational excellence Additionally, they seek to boost public confidence in school education by establishing clear standards that facilitate the measurement and evaluation of educational achievement, effectiveness, efficiency, and equity in schooling.
The Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) plays a crucial role in the Australian education landscape by delivering a comprehensive National Report on Schooling Additionally, MCEETYA has formed a Taskforce dedicated to enhancing performance measurement and reporting within the education sector, ensuring accountability and continuous improvement in educational outcomes.
(http://www.mceetya.edu.au/taskfrce/task224.htm).
The MCEETYA Taskforce provides the Ministerial Council with insights on effective reporting methods for schooling systems' activities and outcomes These methods are essential for achieving and reporting on the National Goals for Schooling.
In particular the Taskforce provides advice on (amongst other areas):
- The development of a small and strategic number of measures for the national reporting of comparable education outcomes;
- The development and maintenance of key performance measures as the basis for national reporting in the agreed areas;
- Areas where it may be appropriate to establish national targets or benchmarks in relation to the agreed key performance measures;
The National Schools Statistics Collection is essential for maintaining and sharing statistical data that meets the needs of stakeholders and decision-makers This involves the careful presentation, publication, and dissemination of collected data to ensure accessibility and relevance.
- Generating data relating to resourcing of schools to meet agreed requirements for national reporting;
- Improved public reporting on student learning outcomes.
These reporting functions apply to all pupils, including those with special needs in all settings and sectors.
Specific information on pupils with special needs is available the from the Ministry of education website
The Disability Standards for Education 2005 is a crucial piece of legislation that ensures students with special needs receive equitable access to education This framework outlines the rights of these students and mandates that educational institutions provide the necessary support and accommodations By adhering to these standards, schools can create an inclusive environment that fosters learning and development for all students, regardless of their disabilities.
The Disability Standards for Education, established under the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and presented to Parliament on March 17, 2005, aim to eradicate discrimination against individuals with disabilities According to section 22 of the Act, educational authorities are prohibited from discriminating against anyone based on their disability or the disability of individuals associated with them.
The Standards serve as subordinate legislation that aligns with the objectives of the Act, providing clarity on legal obligations in education They encompass critical areas such as enrolment, participation, curriculum development, accreditation, delivery, student support services, and the prevention of harassment and victimization.
Each section outlines the rights of students with disabilities in education and training, ensuring they align with the rights of the broader community These rights statements are designed to help individuals comprehend and adhere to the established standards in the obligation provisions Additionally, the sections detail the legal responsibilities of educational authorities, institutions, and other providers, establishing the compliance standards that must be met by education providers.
The Standards encompass all facets of education, addressing both initial and ongoing assessments necessary for full student inclusion, while also ensuring that recognized accreditation is accessible to every learner.
Canada
In Canada, education is managed by individual provinces and territories, leading to the establishment of the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) in 1967 The CMEC serves as the national voice for education, facilitating discussions and the development of shared policies among ministers It acts as a platform for consultation and cooperation with national education organizations and the federal government on matters of mutual interest.
The Council includes a dedicated Council of Ministers of Education, which can be explored further at http://www.cmec.ca/educmin.en.stm For a comprehensive list of available Ministries, visit http://www.cmec.ca/saip/indexe.stm.
The School Achievement Indicators Program:
The Student Achievement Indicators Program (SAIP), initiated by the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada in 1993, conducts comprehensive assessments of student performance in mathematics, reading, writing, and science across Canada Importantly, this program includes students with special educational needs (SEN) within inclusive educational environments, ensuring a holistic evaluation of student achievement nationwide.
In Canada, the provision of Special Needs Education (SNE) is managed by individual territorial ministries, leading to varied approaches across regions Despite these differences, common challenges persist, highlighting the need for cohesive strategies A comprehensive overview of these issues can be found in Alberta's significant publication, "Shaping the Future for Students with Special Needs: A Review."
Special Education in Alberta (2000) The Special Education Review was initiated in
In March 2000, a comprehensive review was conducted to evaluate the delivery of educational programs and services for students with special needs, resulting in 66 recommendations The review identified key issues and proposed actionable recommendations across seven critical areas, aiming to enhance support for these students.
The review emphasizes the importance of accountability in schools, advocating for mechanisms that ensure authorities provide effective programs for students with special needs while measuring outcomes and engaging parents in the educational process It also calls for enhanced initial and ongoing professional development for special educators and stresses the need for improved policies regarding early identification and screening of special needs students.
New Zealand
The Ministry of Education provides comprehensive information on educational policies, structures, and guidelines for practice on its official website (http://www.minedu.govt.nz/) Additionally, the Ministry releases an annual report detailing educational achievements.
(http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid834&data=l)
In 2004, the Ministry highlighted that New Zealand's education system is strong by international standards, although there is significant disparity between top and low achieving students Key improvements noted include positive achievement gains from various schooling initiatives focused on literacy, numeracy, and assessment Additionally, there has been progress in professional practices related to these areas, enhanced accessibility to information on student achievement, and a growing research base that is transforming professional practices and perspectives.
The report highlights essential areas for future educational enhancement, focusing on the need for improved initial teacher training and enhanced in-service training Additionally, it emphasizes the ongoing development of the national assessment tool for teaching and learning, known as asTTle.
The asTTle assessment tool, developed in New Zealand, assists teachers in identifying students' strengths and gaps in learning by evaluating their reading, writing, and mathematics skills Available in both English and Te Reo Māori, asTTle is highly regarded by educators for its comprehensive insights into student performance, offering them the flexibility and authority to select tests and analyze results effectively.
A key research piece used to inform general assessment practice in New Zealand is the review The Effects of Curricula and Assessment on Pedagogical Approaches and on Educational Outcomes
This review examines the impact of curricula and assessment on teaching methods and educational outcomes, highlighting the differences between mandated and local curricula in their influence on teaching practices and student learning It also explores how various assessment systems, including national and state-wide testing, affect pupil learning, with a particular emphasis on the significance of formative assessment.
Special education is subject to central policy and implementation
The Government's special education policy aims to enhance learning outcomes for children and young people with special education needs in their local schools or early childhood centers Introduced in the 1996 Budget, the Special Education 2000 framework focuses on improving resources for these students This policy upholds the rights of every pupil to learn in alignment with the Education Act 1989, the National Education Guidelines, and the Special Education Policy Guidelines Additionally, the New Zealand Disability Strategy seeks to eliminate barriers that hinder the full participation of disabled individuals in society.
The National Education Guidelines play a crucial role in shaping effective policies and practices within schools, outlining the National Education Goals that provide a unified direction for New Zealand's state education system These goals emphasize a comprehensive and inclusive curriculum, ensuring equal opportunities for all students, particularly those with special education needs Additionally, the Guidelines feature National Curriculum Statements that assist schools in developing teaching and learning programs that align with the New Zealand Curriculum, detailing the essential knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values outlined in the Curriculum Framework.
South Africa
For comprehensive insights into the education system and policies in South Africa, you can visit the Ministry of Education's official website at http://education.pwv.gov.za/ Additionally, the site offers specific resources regarding special and inclusive education.
(http://education.pwv.gov.za/mainActivities.asp?src=dire&xsrc=iedu)
The Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) guarantees the right to basic education for all individuals, which encompasses adult basic education and further education The state is obligated to progressively make this right available and accessible through reasonable measures This essential right to education is foundational for personal and societal development.
The Constitution mandates in Section 9 (2) the state's commitment to achieving equality, while Sections 9 (3), (4), and (5) emphasize non-discrimination The government is obligated to ensure basic education for all learners, recognizing that a unified education and training system must prioritize equity, address historical disparities, and progressively enhance the quality of education and training.
The Consultative Paper No 1 on Special Education: Building an Inclusive Education and Training System, First Steps (1995) is a pivotal document in the evolution of special education in South Africa, stemming from collaborative efforts by a national team.
Commission investigating "the unsatisfactory educational experiences of learners with special education needs, including those within mainstream education whose educational needs were not adequately accommodated"
The primary objective of this consultation was to establish the Curriculum 2005 policy, which aims to create an inclusive framework for curriculum, assessment, and qualifications This policy emphasizes that there will not be a separate curriculum framework for learners with diverse learning needs.
The consultation paper addresses key elements of general and special needs education (SNE) assessments, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and continuous institution-based formative assessments that offer valuable feedback for learning It highlights the need for diverse assessment methods, including self and peer evaluations A significant conclusion drawn is the urgent need to re-evaluate standardised tests used for student placement, as their validity is increasingly questioned The Ministry advocates for retaining only those tests that effectively identify learning difficulties and exclusion, recommending the discontinuation of routine group intelligence tests in the assessment process.
The Curriculum 2005 document outlines Assessment Guidelines for Inclusion, promoting "Inclusive Outcome Based Education." It emphasizes key principles such as accommodating diversity in assessment, addressing barriers to learning, utilizing alternative or adaptive assessment methods, and incorporating portfolios.
United States of America
For comprehensive information about education at the federal level in the United States, visit the official Department of Education website at http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml Additionally, details concerning special education can be accessed through the Office of Special Education.
Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS)
(http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=oc)
Whilst every State has the right to set State laws, the policy and legislation for education and special education at Federal level applies in all States.
The United States employs a national reporting system to track educational progress, overseen by the Commissioner of Education Statistics at the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), a division of the Department of Education.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/), also known as the “Nation's Report Card," is a specific project presenting nationally representative, continuing assessment information.
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) conducts and reports nationwide assessments in essential curriculum areas, including reading, math, and science, as seen in their 2004 evaluations Additionally, the NAEP undertakes special topic projects, such as the National Indian Education Study, to address specific educational concerns.
(http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/nies.asp).
According to the U.S Department of Education's Seventeenth Annual Report to
In the 1993-1994 school year, over 5 million children from birth to age 21 benefited from special education and related services in educational institutions across the United States The primary legislation guiding special education policy is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), first enacted in 1997 and subsequently improved by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act in 2004.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that all students with special needs receive individualized progress assessment information To comply with the 1997 Amendments to IDEA, assessment procedures must include ongoing monitoring of each student's progress, ensuring that teachers can effectively provide specially designed instruction tailored to their unique requirements.
The 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandate the inclusion of students with special educational needs in state and district-wide assessments These students must be accommodated appropriately, and their scores should be reported alongside those of their peers Additionally, alternate assessments should be created for the small percentage of students who cannot participate in standard assessments, ensuring that all students are represented in the evaluation process.
In the mid-1990s, the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) identified three critical areas in the assessment process where students with special educational needs were frequently excluded: the development, administration, and reporting of assessments To address this issue, the NCEO now offers guidance and resources for policymakers and educators on creating accommodations that ensure equitable assessment opportunities for these students The primary goal of these accommodations is to "level the playing field" for pupils with special educational needs.
The IDEA Act and its amendments align with the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) to promote equity, accountability, and excellence in education for children with disabilities NCLB aims to provide all children with a fair and equal opportunity to achieve a high-quality education and attain proficiency in challenging state academic standards and assessments.
The No Child Left Behind Act aims to enhance accountability in American schools by closing the achievement gap, providing increased flexibility, expanding parental choices, and implementing effective teaching methods.
Under the NCLB act's accountability provisions, States must describe how they will
To close the achievement gap and ensure that all students, especially those who are disadvantaged, reach academic proficiency, schools must produce annual report cards that update parents and communities on progress If schools fail to show improvement, they are required to offer supplemental services like free tutoring or after-school programs, implement corrective actions, and, if necessary, undergo significant changes in management after five years of inadequate progress.
Common Policy Trends and Factors?
Despite variations in degree, focus, and implementation, all examined countries share common elements in their education policies that could significantly influence assessment practices in primary inclusive settings.
1 – there are national level goals for education and linked to these there are different forms of standards that pupils are expected to reach;
2 – there are national level projects, departments, task forces etc with responsibilities for monitoring the performance of pupils, programmes and curricular, schools and perhaps even education districts;
3 – Assessment evidence regarding pupil performance is used as a measure of school (etc) performance;
4 – Pupil assessment information is made available in one form or another in the public domain;
5 - There are no separate assessment systems for pupils with special educational apart from measures related to initial assessment and individual needs identification;
6 - Pupils with special educational needs are entitled to access national assessments in a way that is appropriate for them i.e assessments must be appropriately modified;
7 – National level guidelines on how 'accommodations' of assessment are to be made are available or being developed.
The analysis reveals several key factors that warrant further investigation, with some recognized by countries as areas for future improvement This review also emphasizes additional issues that merit attention and consideration for development.
Debates surrounding the quality of education, the need for higher standards, and the value for money in education are prevalent in public discussions, prompting significant pressure for decisive action at the national level.
B - All countries have a clear focus upon accountability in education and pupil assessment information is used as one accountability tool and/or measure;
C – Raising standards and especially raising the standards of achievement of pupils seen as being 'disadvantaged' (as opposed to having identified special educational needs) is a priority;
D - Increasing the quantity and or quality of information on pupil achievements is seen by many countries as an ongoing priority;
E – Teacher training in assessment techniques and methods generally and SEN focussed teacher training specifically is seen as a priority area in countries;
There is a growing trend to shift from standardized tests and norm-referenced assessments towards performance measures that effectively demonstrate the progress of all students.
G - There is a recognition that formative, ongoing assessment linked to individualised teaching programmes is the most useful assessment information for pupils with special educational needs.
This section outlines key policy elements and initiatives observed in various countries, without delving into their practical implications The subsequent section (4) examines research on assessment practices, revealing several implications related to the previously discussed policies Finally, the last section (5) presents additional potential implications of countries' assessment policies, culminating in overall conclusions.
ASSESSMENT PRACTICE
Evidence Based Assessment Practice?
This review focuses on evidence-based research to identify critical issues in assessment for learning among primary-aged children with special educational needs It also showcases examples of effective and innovative practices grounded in research and evidence.
Extensive internet searches were conducted across multiple databases, such as ERIC, British Education Index, and Australian Education Index, to locate relevant articles on inclusion, assessment, research, children, and evidence-based practices While a significant number of articles were available without the terms 'children' or 'primary,' the search results dwindled to nearly none when focusing specifically on younger children Additionally, there is a notable abundance of research concerning older school children and university students, much of which appears to lack a solid empirical foundation.
The search for relevant studies in the field revealed only a limited number of Random Control Trials (RCTs) suitable for inclusion in a meta-analysis, highlighting potential limitations in the research efforts While literature on assessment is available, many of these studies tend to focus on single case analyses involving individual children, classes, or schools Additionally, some research consists of surveys capturing the perspectives of teachers and parents regarding the educational progress of children with Special Educational Needs (SEN).
Research is essential for promoting effective practices in special education needs (SEN) and inclusion, as highlighted by Anderson and Helms (2002), who emphasize the accountability mandated by the 2002 US law "No Child Left Behind." This law underscores the importance of utilizing evidence-based teaching methods, necessitating research-driven assessments to verify their effectiveness Additionally, Anderson (1998) points out the legal requirements for including students with disabilities in large-scale assessments, referencing the work of the US National Center on Educational Outcomes, which addresses necessary accommodations and alternative assessments Furthermore, the National Academy of Education Panel (1996) provides valuable data and methodologies for including and reporting on children with limited English proficiency or disabilities, reinforcing the need for inclusive educational practices.
Many articles highlight the necessity of evidence to support policy and practice, yet they often fail to specify how this can be achieved This section will explore various types of research evidence from diverse sources Additionally, it will address the potential need for more or different types of research in this area.
Diagnostic Assessment
Section 3 of this review looks at some issues relating to legal frameworks for the assessment and identification of pupils' special educational needs, however in this section, key points relating to assessment practice are highlighted.
In the countries reviewed, pupil assessment in inclusive settings primarily focuses on diagnosis and informing learning programs While there are efforts to improve this approach in places like Canada, Australia, and the USA, diagnostic evaluations frequently occur in clinical environments rather than within the classroom.
Despite their high validity and empirical construction, diagnostic assessment tools are seldom utilized in routine classroom settings While clinical and educational psychologists, psychiatrists, and special educators use these tests to evaluate specific changes, they primarily serve as 'snapshots' for administrative tasks related to placement and provision, rather than enhancing teaching and learning (Madaus et al., 1997).
For over a century, psychologists have developed standardized objective tests suitable for global use; however, these assessments are often inaccessible to classroom teachers, can be time-consuming to administer, and typically require specialized training or permissions.
Assessment technology is currently lagging behind the laws and regulations that oversee the evaluation of students with disabilities, presenting a significant challenge in the United States today.
Australian teachers often rely on various types of assessment evidence to guide their teaching practices However, Goodrum, Hackling, and Rennie (2001) indicate that diagnostic evidence is seldom utilized, as it provides limited insights into how teachers can effectively support student learning.
A significant barrier is the perceived separation between professionals in specialist diagnosis and those in education Bickel and Hattrup (1995) emphasize the need for collaborative research to bridge this professional divide, highlighting an increasing awareness that knowledge production should be a collective responsibility among practitioners from various research communities.
The National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL) highlights four valuable lessons from their collaborative research projects that can significantly inform the inclusive education sector.
1 Connecting teachers and practitioners from different research communities has a positive impact on teachers and their practice;
2 Connecting teachers and other practitioners has a positive impact on non- educationalists and their research;
3 Effectively connecting teachers and other practitioners requires specific strategies;
4 Effectively connecting teachers and other practitioners requires specific support.
Collaborative efforts can enhance the development of diagnostic assessment tools for formative assessment in psychological research The Child Behaviour Checklist and Revised Child Behaviour Profile, created by Achenbach and Edelbrock in 1983, are widely utilized for diagnosing behavioral changes as reported by various stakeholders These validated scales not only aid in diagnosis but also measure learning and development across different domains over time Increased collaboration can lead to the creation of effective tools for regular use in classrooms.
Modifying 'mainstream' assessments
All countries examined in this report have established national or regional policies for the comprehensive assessment of students, along with legal frameworks that support the education of students with special needs These frameworks ensure that these students are entitled to participate in national or regional assessments that are tailored or adjusted to meet their individual requirements.
Madaus (1988) highlights the significance of national or regional testing for students with diverse needs, introducing the concept of high stakes tests These assessments are viewed by students, educators, and the public as critical tools influencing significant decisions that impact their futures High stakes tests can be either norm-referenced or criterion-referenced and may originate from internal or external sources Notably, assessments that initially appear low stakes can transform into high stakes when they are linked to crucial decisions regarding students and teachers.
For numerous writers, the initial diagnostic assessment is considered a high-stakes evaluation, as it significantly influences placement and provision decisions A key discussion among authors in inclusive settings revolves around the need to modify or accommodate these high-stakes assessments, which are utilized for evaluating pupils, classes, and even schools in terms of appraisal and accountability.
In South African education, Pryor and Lubisi (2001) define assessment accommodation as a modification in the administration of general assessments or tests, aimed at enabling learners facing barriers to demonstrate their knowledge and abilities without hindrance This concept of assessment accommodation is relevant in various countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, although it may be referred to by different terms.
Goodwin (1997) emphasizes the intrinsic link between assessment and inclusion, asserting that equitable education is contingent upon effective assessment methods His edited volume offers a comprehensive exploration of the policy and practical challenges associated with what is referred to in the USA as 'alternate assessments'.
Goodwin highlights the pervasive influence of standardized testing in the U.S education system throughout the 20th century, stating that it accounts for 80% of all system-wide assessments used by school districts She identifies several critical shortcomings of standardized tests, including their emphasis on low-level, de-contextualized facts and their tendency to provide a fragmented representation of a learner Furthermore, these tests are often misused to portray an incomplete picture of a student's abilities Most concerning is their role in shaping curriculum and instruction, particularly for low-achieving students, who, according to Goodwin, require more enriched and comprehensive educational experiences rather than a narrow focus on test preparation.
In the USA, the term "alternate assessment" refers to modified evaluations for various minority and disadvantaged groups, not exclusively for students with special educational needs (SEN) However, as Byrnes (2004) highlights, the 1997 Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA '97) and the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act have led to a growing focus on alternate assessments to better address the needs of students with special needs.
Kleinert et al (2002) highlight critical questions regarding alternate assessments for students with special needs, focusing on how educators can fulfill their responsibilities while adhering to federal standards They emphasize the importance of ensuring that all students with disabilities can achieve success in the general education curriculum Additionally, they raise inquiries about how teachers determine which students require alternate assessments and the strategies for designing effective assessments tailored to these learners.
Kleinert et al as well as numerous other authors (for example Ysseldyke and Olsen,
In their 1999 study, Kirk et al emphasize diverse methods for assessing students, highlighting the benefits of individual, peer, self, and small group assessments, as well as the involvement of parents and the use of work portfolios Additionally, Elliott and Marquart (2004) explore how extended time accommodations in tests can impact student performance, offering valuable insights into effective assessment strategies.
Current research on the effectiveness of alternate assessments is limited, with notable exceptions like the review by Browder et al (2003) This review analyzed 19 data-driven studies that highlighted the impact of alternate assessments on students, instructional practices, curriculum development, and school reform, specifically focusing on pupils with significant learning disabilities.
Browder et al conclude that there is insufficient data to confidently assert that alternate assessments will fulfill their intended promises They highlight several critical issues that remain unaddressed, including the accepted standards for general assessments, the basis of alternate assessments—whether they extend academic standards, incorporate additional functional standards, or both—and the eligibility criteria for participation Furthermore, they raise concerns about how participation in alternate assessments impacts both student and system accountability, the methods or formats that should be utilized, and the scoring processes for these assessments.
The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory emphasizes the need for equity in alternative assessments, highlighting that unresolved issues in this area must be addressed to ensure fair evaluation practices.
To ensure fair treatment of students and provide parents and communities with a clear understanding of student achievement, educators must recognize the benefits and challenges of alternate assessment practices These assessments play a crucial role in high-stakes decisions, including student retention, promotion, graduation, and placement in specific instructional groups, all of which can significantly impact students' futures.
Browder et al highlight essential areas for enhancing alternative assessment, emphasizing the need for improved teacher training in assessment practices and the integration of alternative assessments with curricula and teaching programs Most importantly, they stress the importance of aligning assessments with Individual Education Plans (IEPs) The discussion on the latter two points is elaborated upon, while improved teacher training is addressed in section 4.4.3.
4.3.1 Assessment Linked to Teaching Programmes
According to Stanford and Reeves (2005), effective teaching relies on assessment strategies—both formal and informal—that enable educators to identify suitable instructional methods while also evaluating student progress This vital connection between teaching programs and assessment is emphasized by researchers and is also embedded in U.S legislation.
Participants in Inclusive Assessment
This review highlights the significance of various stakeholders in the assessment process across multiple countries Meyen’s (1995) book, “Educating Students with Mild Disabilities,” features valuable chapters on research and assessment aimed at practitioners Notably, Sanchez (1995) addresses the critical area of culturally sensitive assessment for diverse learners in a multicultural context Additionally, Falvey (1995) emphasizes the involvement of parents and students in educational assessment procedures Hammeken (1995) further illustrates, through case studies, how incorporating the perspectives of teachers, parents, and students can enhance instruction and assessment in inclusive settings.
In the following section the research investigating the potential contributions of three key stakeholders to assessment practice are considered: pupils, parents and teachers
Dorman and Knightley (2005) highlight that research has predominantly focused on various types of assessment, with limited attention given to students' perceptions of these assessments They emphasize that effective assessment relies on a two-way communication exchange between the teacher and the student Furthermore, Rogoff (2001) underscores the significance of how teachers involve students in this assessment dialogue, indicating its critical role in the assessment process.
Empirical research consistently shows that self-assessment positively influences achievement, particularly among students without special needs, as evidenced by the study conducted by MacDonald and Boud in 2004.
Wehmeyer et al (2004) emphasize the importance of self-determination for students with learning disabilities, arguing that fostering autonomy in learning and behavior requires active learner participation in their own assessment They highlight the need for teachers and parents to guide students in self-assessment, not only to enhance the assessment process but also to promote the overall independence of the learners.
Various pieces list pupil self-assessment as a specific strategy to be employed with pupils who experience different forms of difficulty in learning As early as Samuel
Since 1989, self-assessment has emerged as an effective strategy for students with special needs, emphasizing the importance of understanding learning objectives and success criteria For students to become proficient self-evaluators, they must cultivate a deeper comprehension of their educational goals Moreover, it is crucial that self-assessment aligns with broader initiatives aimed at fostering student accountability in their learning journey.
While much research highlights the benefits of peer assessment for mainstream learners, there is a notable lack of studies focusing on students with special educational needs (SEN) One significant early study by von Harrison and Reay (1983) examined the advantages of reciprocal peer tutoring in reading within inclusive primary classrooms Their findings, initially observed in the USA and later confirmed in the UK, revealed that structured peer tutoring and assessment activities positively impacted all participating students.
When considering the role of parents in assessing their children's learning, it is essential to recognize the dual nature of their involvement Parents can provide valuable insights into their child's needs, contributing to ongoing assessments that enhance learning However, many parents, including those of children with special needs, often hold preconceived notions about assessment, shaped by their own experiences with standardized testing and media portrayals of educational standards Research by Harlen and James highlights that parents, like much of the general public, are primarily familiar with summative assessment methods, which are typically used to report on learning outcomes at specific points in time.
In the situation of education being directed by 'customer reaction and satisfaction' the perceptions of parents and guardians have to be taken very seriously Robinson
(1997) argues that: "In order for alternate assessment to permanently replace standardized methods of evaluation, public support must be garnered Parents head the list of potential supporters".
Engaging parents in assessments within inclusive education poses a significant challenge, yet various effective strategies have emerged Research has highlighted parents' perceptions of inclusive education, with Leyser and Kirk (2004) surveying 437 US parents using a modified Opinions Relating to Mainstream Scale, and Johnson and Duffett (2002) conducting a national telephone survey of 510 parents of children with special educational needs (SEN) These studies not only shed light on parental perspectives but also suggest potential models for future research focused on enhancing parental involvement in assessment processes within inclusive settings.
The importance of the parental role in diagnostic assessment is discussed by Grover
In 2003, Grover examined the Canadian educational categorization system for students with special needs and its connection to mental health diagnoses Parents seeking special education services typically must consent to formal assessments of their children However, Grover highlights a common lack of understanding among parents regarding the overlap between educational special needs and mental health diagnoses, which can result in school boards proceeding with special education placements without parental consent The article discusses the implications of this issue and suggests potential strategies for better supporting parents throughout the diagnostic process.
Thurlow (1999) highlights the importance of parental involvement in the assessment processes mandated by the USA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Since 1997, states have updated their assessment policies to align with IDEA amendments, ensuring that all students with special needs are included The Parents Engaged in Education Reform (PEER) Project advocates for parents to take an active role in shaping these assessment policies, emphasizing their critical contribution to educational reform.
Hundt (2002) explores the benefits of videotaping students with special needs in classrooms to enhance parental involvement in their education, particularly in the development of Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and tracking progress While her project highlights both advantages and disadvantages of using video evidence, she ultimately advocates for practical and accessible methods of sharing information about a child's performance This approach enables teachers and parents, along with other family members, to make informed, collaborative decisions regarding the achievement of educational objectives.
Teachers play a vital role in the assessment process, particularly in primary inclusive classrooms, where their training in special needs education and assessment techniques is essential This training significantly influences teachers' attitudes and skills, ultimately fostering successful inclusion of all students (Kemp and Carter, 2005).
Perlman (1996) emphasizes the increasing demands on professionals assessing students in inclusive settings, which include developing alternate assessments aligned with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and state standards, establishing standards for these assessments, determining appropriate accommodations, reporting results, and interpreting norm-referenced test outcomes conducted under non-standard conditions Ultimately, Perlman argues that the expectations placed on assessment professionals significantly surpass their capacity to meet the Federal government's requirements.
Hattie (2005) emphasizes the importance of shifting teachers' focus from mere data to meaningful interpretations of assessment evidence to enhance teaching and learning He advocates for a transition from concentrating solely on student outcomes to recognizing teaching successes and improvements Additionally, he suggests that accountability should primarily be centered in the classroom rather than solely within the school context This perspective highlights the necessity for training that not only develops teachers' skills but also addresses their attitudes towards assessment.
According to Gearheart, Weishahn, and Gearheart (1992), effective teaching for pupils with special needs requires three essential types of knowledge: an understanding of the history of education for individuals with disabilities and the relevant legislation; specific information about various disabilities and their impact on instructional needs and assessment methods; and proficiency in assessment, teaching, and learning strategies tailored for special needs students This foundational knowledge is crucial for developing the right attitudes that facilitate the acquisition of specific skills later on.
School Organisation
According to Perrone (1997), the widespread use of norm and criterion-referenced tests in the USA has resulted in "low levels of teaching and learning." These assessment structures have also influenced how schools organize themselves to comply with external accountability requirements.
Cumming and Maxwell (2004) examined assessment practices in Australian education, identifying ten key themes, with a focus on secondary education's vocational delivery and diverse pathways to future careers Their study highlights critical factors influencing teacher assessment practices, including a robust curriculum foundation, the integration of school-based assessments in certification, and the preference for standards-referenced assessments They emphasize the importance of respecting teacher judgments, the role of school-based assessments during compulsory schooling, and the movement towards outcomes-based frameworks at various levels Additionally, they address concerns regarding national benchmark data collection and equity issues, asserting that these interrelated factors are essential in shaping assessment structures across classrooms.
The Need for Research
A recent small-scale review highlights two significant issues in empirical research on assessment within primary inclusive settings Firstly, similar to trends observed in various European nations, non-European countries lack a recognized 'knowledge base' for collecting research information on this topic, hindering the cumulative understanding of assessment practices While some national-level resource banks, like Educational Assessment Australia, provide general information, they often do not focus specifically on research related to special needs education (SNE) Instead, specialist information services tend to be associated with NGOs or charitable organizations, such as Learning Disabilities Online in the USA, which offers valuable advice and research on assessment for children with learning disabilities.
While there are some noteworthy studies on assessment in primary inclusive settings, most are limited to single-case studies with few subjects, providing only snapshots that fail to capture long-term assessment effectiveness Although these approaches may be well-crafted, they often lack empirical evidence and are primarily based on individual experiences Consequently, while the findings may be intriguing, they cannot be confidently generalized for broader application.
Despite significant investments in education, particularly in special needs education and assessment, funding for research, especially longitudinal studies, remains severely limited Rennie (1997) highlights this challenge within Australian special education, indicating that it is a widespread issue that extends beyond national borders.
The limited evidence-based research on inclusive assessment raises the question of whether traditional research methodologies are suitable for this topic Practitioners often struggle to determine the criteria for evaluating research publications Two papers from 2005 in ‘Exceptional Children’ address the role of evidence-based research in special education and propose methods for assessing evidence-based studies Horner et al (2005) highlight the significance of single subject research in establishing evidence-based practices in special education, while noting the ongoing challenge of validating this research for broader application in different contexts.
Gersten et al (2005) propose quality indicators for evaluating experimental and quasi-experimental studies in special education, aiming to enhance the assessment of research reports and highlight key issues for further examination They emphasize the necessity for standardized criteria to establish whether practices in special education are evidence-based, advocating for ongoing discussion, review, and adoption of these standards within the field.
The effectiveness of traditional evidence-based research in influencing policy and practice in inclusive assessment is under scrutiny, particularly in Europe, where discussions about the emergence of specialized research methodologies for special needs education (SNE) are growing Porter and Lacey (2005) suggest that such methodologies require unique expertise and skills tailored to the sector While this notion may seem at odds with the philosophy of inclusion, it raises the question of whether new research approaches are necessary to address the individualized nature of educational contexts As highlighted by Hopkins and Harris (1997), the uniqueness of schools and classrooms is rooted in their internal dynamics, making each setting distinct Therefore, it may be essential to reevaluate non-traditional, non-empirical evidence from case studies and discussion papers as valid sources of information to enhance assessment practices.
CONCLUSIONS
In 1996, the UNESCO International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century released the report "Learning: the Treasure Within," which envisioned lifelong education During the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference, seven key tensions for 21st-century education were identified, with at least three specifically addressing assessment-related challenges.
Balancing long-term and short-term priorities is crucial, as it involves resisting the urge for quick fixes to complex issues Instead, a thoughtful and negotiated reform strategy is essential for sustainable solutions.
2 The tension between competition and equality of opportunity: reconciling competition (which provides motivation and incentives) and co-operation, combined with equity and social justice for all;
The growing body of knowledge presents a challenge for individuals to effectively absorb and apply it To address this, educational curricula must integrate essential foundational knowledge while pedagogical approaches should emphasize the development of learning skills This balance is crucial for fostering an environment where students can thrive amidst the vast information landscape.
In recent decades, educational assessment has evolved significantly, with a growing emphasis on its role as a policy issue There is an increasing interest in assessment types that not only measure but also promote standards and quality in education Goodwin (1997) highlights a tension between demands for standardized curricula and national testing systems, and the need for contextualized assessments using multiple measures This dynamic has important implications for individual learners, educational institutions, and the overall educational system.
International comparative studies of educational standards, particularly the OECD PISA studies, significantly influence educational policy by emphasizing pupil performance and accountability The public availability of assessment evidence fosters comparisons that drive national-level pressures for improved educational outcomes Consequently, three notable effects emerge from this trend in educational policy-making.
- The development and use of ‘content standards’ as the basis of assessment and accountability;
- The dual emphasis of setting demanding ‘performance standards’ for education that may or may not support the aim of including all pupils in mainstream education;
- The attachment of ‘high-stakes accountability mechanisms’ to assessment evidence in relation to schools, teaching programmes, teachers and sometimes pupils themselves
A major concern regarding standardized education is whether uniform standards for all students genuinely enhance overall educational quality Critics argue that this approach can lead to a reduction in diverse educational experiences for many, while simultaneously failing to nurture the unique talents of others Historical evidence suggests that initiatives focused on standardized testing, such as those discussed at the 1991 American Educational Reform Association conference, have not resulted in significant improvements in education.
Many educators advocate for innovative assessment methods that foster student learning, drive educational enhancement, and promote equity among all learners They argue that extensive testing undermines these essential goals, suggesting that the focus should shift from standardized test scores to meaningful school reform Instead of investing in additional testing, resources should be allocated to support teachers and improve student learning outcomes, rather than merely sorting and ranking students, schools, and regions.
This review highlights that valuable insights into effective assessment practices can be drawn from working with students who have special educational needs Earl and LeMahieu (1997) emphasize the importance of 'assessment as learning' to achieve meaningful educational reforms This approach enables teachers to leverage their understanding of a student's learning to guide their teaching strategies and tailor support for individual needs Such objectives align with best practice assessment methods in inclusive primary education settings.
Van Kraayenoord (2003) highlights that discussions about inclusion among teachers and administrators often lead to two key conclusions: schools must adapt to meet the needs of all students, not just those with special needs, and the focus shifts from inclusion to broader school improvement He argues that this shift encourages educators to rethink and restructure their teaching and assessment practices, ultimately enhancing the educational experience for all pupils.
The review highlights that assessment policies, including those related to Special Educational Needs (SEN), are increasingly influenced by external accountability demands rather than evidence-based best practices in teaching and learning Darling-Hammond and Faulk (1997) emphasize the importance of developing assessment policies that effectively support all students, identifying several key principles that should guide these policies to enhance educational outcomes.
- Assessment should be based upon standards for learning;
- Performance of understanding to be assessed should be represented in ‘authentic’ and appropriate ways;
- Assessment should be embedded within the curriculum and teaching;
- Assessment should aim to provide multiple forms of evidence about pupils’ learning;
- Educational standards should be evaluated, but not by imposing standardisation;
- The people who carry out assessments (i.e teachers) should be the people who design, judge and then report on assessment outcomes;
- ‘Innovators’ and best practice should be used to inform the policy and lead the assessment system;
- Professional development should be paramount in order for teachers and schools to explore and implement new assessment methods that can inform policy;
- School performance should be evaluated using information on their practice as well as longitudinal (not snap-shot) assessment evidence about individual pupils.
These points appear to give a good lead in considering how assessment policy can draw upon, rather than militate against innovative inclusive assessment practice.
This review aims to encourage readers to form their own conclusions based on the information provided It is hoped that the insights shared will spark discussion and reflection on the challenges faced by non-European countries, particularly in comparison to the policies and practices of nations involved in the Agency Assessment project.
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